Pilgrimage as a Phenomenon and Features of Russian Pilgrimage Activities in Palestine in the Second Half of the 19th – early 20th Centuries

Pashkovsky Petr Igorevich ORCID: 0000-0001-5403-3797 Doctor of Politics Professor; Department of Political Sciences and International Relations; V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University 295007, Russia, Republic of Crimea, Simferopol, Akademika Vernadskogo ave., 4 petr.pash@yandex.ru Other publications by this author     Kryzhko Evgeniy Vladimirovich ORCID: 0000-0001-9943-819X PhD in History Associate Professor at V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University  295007, Russia, Republic of Crimea, Simferopol, Akademika Vernadskogo ave., 4 jeyson1030@gmail.com Other publications by this author

Bliznyakov Roman Aleksandrovich ORCID: 0000-0002-9863-0267 PhD in History Head of the Scientific Research Laboratory 'Sacred Landscapes of the Byzantine Frontier'; Sevastopol State University 33 Universitetskaya str., Sevastopol, 299053, Russia bliznyakov80@mail.ru

Historically, the phenomenon of pilgrimage to holy sites is of particular importance in times of change and existential crises. In modern conditions of increasing confrontation between Russia and the collective West – manifested at the political, economic, social and humanitarian levels ^[1] - issues related to overcoming deepening "dividing lines", the search for life meanings and spiritual practices that can explain and try to have a positive impact on the situation in a state of existential crisis and revaluation of values are being actualized. This prompts us to turn to the domestic experience of pilgrimage during the second half of the XIX – early XX century: the era of global geopolitical transformations, the "slide of the world to war" and socio-political cataclysms ^{[2; 3; 4]}, which, drawing historical analogies, can contribute to solving similar problems of the present time.

The study of the phenomenon of pilgrimage is characterized by extensive domestic and foreign historiography ^[5-33], which includes numerous works by scientists, clergymen and publicists. At the same time, in the process of characterizing various aspects of the designated direction, the authors often pay insufficient attention to issues of an essential nature related to the consideration of the origin and specifics of the phenomenon of pilgrimage and its manifestations on the example of the pilgrimage activity of the Russian Empire in Palestine in the second half of the XIX – early XX century. This publication is intended to provide an overview analysis of the identified problem.

The concept of "pilgrimage" (from Latin. palma – palm tree; lat. peregrinus – foreigner, wanderer) is defined as "the journey of believers to "holy places" ^{[34, p. 356]}, "geographical places and relics of sacred significance." The origin of this word "is connected with the custom of Christian pilgrims (pilgrims) to bring palm branches from Jerusalem." It is accepted to believe that pilgrimage "is inherent in virtually any religion. Traditionally, overcoming the difficulties of the path is an important element of it" ^[35].

Pilgrimage, "as a journey for religious purposes," has entered "into a metaphorical series associated with the concept of "paths": wandering, the course of human life, cognition (discipleship), etc. The figurative meaning is more or less present in the terms "pilgrimage", "pilgrimage" and is actualized at different stages of religious development and in the history of pilgrimage literature" ^[36].

Traditionally, a pilgrimage is a trip of believers along a certain route in order to visit a holy place for prayer and spiritual benefit. This is often done for the sake of fulfilling a vow, asking for healing from an illness, or for other needs. Places of pilgrimage are often significant for believers: holy springs; miraculous icons; temples; relics and burials of saints ^{[16; 17; 19; 20; 31; 33]}.

The pilgrimage activity can be divided into four stages: 1) preparing for the pilgrimage; 2) traveling to the designated holy place; 3) achieving the purpose of the trip and staying at the holy place; 4) returning home. At the same time, the following functions of pilgrimage are highlighted. Firstly, the spiritual and educational function: participation in prayer, divine services and church sacraments, which contributes to the "spiritual growth" of the participants of such a trip. Secondly, the educational function: gaining knowledge about the history of visited places; acquaintance with cultural attractions (monuments of architecture, literature, etc.); formation of an understanding of the role of a particular holy place in domestic and international spiritual life. Thirdly, the missionary function: the introduction to the church of people who previously had little connection with Orthodoxy. Fourth, the function of communication (communication): acquaintance, exchange of experiences and impressions, friendship and unity in the Orthodox faith; formation of a special circle of like-minded people. Fifthly, the function of unification (parish-paying): the consequence of sending parishioners of the same church to a holy place together with a priest, the derivative of which is the awareness of Orthodox conciliarity and common prayer. Sixth, a charitable function: the opportunity to see with your own eyes what a certain shrine needs and provide financial assistance. Seventh, the function of experience exchange: pilgrimage centers operating in holy places can share knowledge about the organization and arrangement of similar events ^{[11, pp. 139-142]}.

Throughout human history, there has been a tradition of traveling to holy places. Acts of pilgrimage were recorded by the stories of participants in such trips, forming cultural and religious practices: on the one hand, as examples of activities taking place in a specific period, and on the other, stories about it, retold later. In turn, the inextricable connection of pilgrimage with religious experience becomes a definite religious practice only in the Christian era ^{[19; 20; 27; 28; 33]}.

Simultaneously with the adoption of Christianity, pilgrimage arises in Russia. Later, the Russian pilgrimage experience was formed, characterized by the presence of the following historical stages: 1) The Byzantine stage (X – XVI centuries); 2) The Moscow stage (XVI – 50s of the XIX century); 3) The Palestinian stage (the second half of the XIX century – 1914); 4) The Soviet stage (1914 – early 1990s); 5) The Russian (modern) stage (early 1990s – present) ^{[12, pp. 127-128]}.

The considered third stage of pilgrimage in Russia (the second half of the XIX century – 1914) was largely the result of the aggravation of the Eastern question (when the problem of holy places that existed for centuries was resolved) against the background of a general increase in tension and contradictions in the relations of the great powers in the context of the registration of the causes and prerequisites of the First World War ^{[11; 15; 18; 26]}. It was a time when, in the words of the Russian scientist A. I. Utkin, "a crazy European split began, which cost it as a whole – and each great national state individually – the place of the center of world power, the vanguard of world development. The brilliant galaxy of diplomats believed too much in the inviolability of Europe as the world axis, the starting point of world development. Europe has paid the price for its fierce conceit, for the narrowness of its mental horizon. The global balance turned out to be fragile, the film of civilization is thin, and the consequences of careless attitude to the needs of European peoples have become bitter" ^{[4, pp. 11-12]}.

During this period, the importance of the East in world politics is being updated. "The Berlin Treatise, unlike the Parisian World," Russian researchers wrote, "was a document of a new era, and its articles reflected trends indicating the active penetration of the trade and financial capital of the great powers into the Balkans and the Middle East. At the same time, he influenced the entire range of international and interstate contradictions in all regions, but above all related to the solution of the Eastern issue. Crises of greater or lesser magnitude and duration periodically erupted. Over time, they occurred more often, became more intense, and covered a larger number of participants" ^{[37, p. 388]}.

These trends contributed to an increase in the interest of the Russian Empire in the Middle East region, which necessitated the need to "veil" Russian intentions towards the territories of the Ottoman Empire, including through pilgrimage activities. As a result, pilgrimages from Russia to Palestine have been intensified in these years, as well as related state and church institutions ^{[12; 18; 20; 22; 23; 27]}. Russian Russian Ecclesiastical Mission (RDM) was founded in Jerusalem in 1847, and in 1882, on the initiative of Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, the Orthodox Palestinian Society was created (which in 1889 was awarded the title of Imperial – hereinafter: IPPO) in order to assist Russian pilgrims in the Holy Land. Subsequently, in 1848-1918, the ministry of the RDM in Palestine expanded. This was manifested by the acquisition of new land plots and the creation of infrastructure, later called "Russian Palestine" ^{[11, pp. 135-137]}.

The significant increase in the Russian presence in the Middle East was largely a result of state and church support for the RDM ^{[12, p. 128]}. In 1856, a project was developed to create infrastructure in the Holy Land for the development of Orthodoxy in the region and the promotion of Russian pilgrimage. At the same time, in order to transport Russian pilgrims from Odessa to Jaffa and back, the Russian Shipping and Trade Society was founded. In 1857, the activities of the RDM intensified, which, as a result of military operations during the Crimean War, was evacuated from Palestine. 1858 was marked by the opening of the Russian diplomatic consulate in Jerusalem. And in 1859, a "Committee for taking measures to establish God-pleasing institutions for Orthodox Pilgrims" (the Palestine Committee) was established in St. Petersburg, which in 1864 was transformed into the Palestine Commission under the Asian Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire. A significant role in the development of the pilgrimage was played by the RDM and, in particular, one of its superiors, Archimandrite Antonin, thanks to whom 14 land plots with a total value of 1 million gold rubles were acquired and built up ^{[15, p. 58]}.

In 1889, by decree of Emperor Alexander III, the Palestine Commission under the Asian Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was dissolved, and its functions, ownership and property (including farmsteads in Jerusalem and other real estate belonging to the Russian Empire in Palestine) were transferred to the IPPO, which became the main organizer of Orthodox pilgrimage in the Russian Empire until 1917 ^{[18; 26; 29]}. According to the charter, the IPPO was entrusted with the implementation of three main functions. First, to organize and arrange Russian pilgrims in the Holy Land. Secondly, to provide assistance and support to Orthodoxy in the Middle East region through charity and educational work among the Arab population. In particular, by 1914, the Society had 113 schools, colleges and teacher seminaries in Palestine, Syria and Lebanon, which was a continuation of similar initiatives of the RDM. Thirdly, to carry out scientific and publishing work on the study of the history and current situation of Palestine and the Middle East as a whole, involving the organization of scientific expeditions and archaeological excavations, as well as the promotion of knowledge about the Holy Land in Russia. From the moment of its foundation until the events of 1917, the IPPO enjoyed comprehensive state support. Initially, the Society was headed by the mentioned Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, after whose death in 1905 his widow, Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, took over this post. The IPPO had a high status, manifested, among other things, in active and stable public and private financing ^[38].

It is noteworthy that by the beginning of the First World War, the IPPO had about 3,000 members, branches of the Society functioned in 52 dioceses of the Russian Orthodox Church, and it owned 28 land plots. In Palestine, 1,576 students were enrolled in 24 IPPO educational institutions, and there were 9974 students in 77 schools in Lebanon and Syria. The farmsteads and hospices belonging to the Society in Palestine provided shelter and overnight accommodation for about 10,000 people during the year ^{[11, p. 135]}.

In general, the second half of the 19th century marked the apogee of the development of political, cultural and ecclesiastical relations between the Russian Empire and the Middle East region. Russian Russian pilgrims' travels to this region, which were becoming more widespread, facilitated the activities of the Russian Steamship Company, as well as the construction of railways in the southern direction ^{[12, p. 129]}, in addition to the formation of church organizations and the acquisition of lands in Palestine. At the same time, the most visited cities here were Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Nazareth ^{[11, p. 137]}.

It should be noted that the number of pilgrims from Russia to the Holy Land has been increasing since the early 20s of the XIX century. So, until 1821, an average of 200 Russian pilgrims visited Palestine per year, in the early 1840s there were up to 400 of them, and in 1858 – about 800. Their number increased annually, amounting to 75596 people during the period 1865-1899. It is significant that about 6,000 pilgrims from Russia arrived in Palestine on Easter 1914, who were surrounded by care and attention from the beginning of their journey. In addition to free passport visas and the mentioned steamship flights from Odessa to Jaffa, they were expected to meet with Russian people (including consulate officials) in this city, food, overnight accommodation and a hospital were provided. The pilgrims were led in groups along a certain route. After the end of this action, they were put on steamships going to the Russian Empire ^[39].

The First World War and subsequent events interrupt the ties of Russia (USSR) with Palestine, which is under the mandate of Great Britain. Russian Russian mission in the Holy Land, however, continued to be supported by representatives of Russian emigration, as well as pilgrims and monastery residents who decided to stay here in 1918-1948. ^{[11; 18; 20; 26; 29]}.

Thus, the pilgrimage appears to be a journey to holy places and relics of sacred significance along a certain route for religious, health or other purposes. This activity includes four stages (preparation; travel; arrival and stay; return) and is characterized (depending on the goals and situation in each case) by the presence of seven functions: spiritual and educational; educational; missionary; communication; parish-paying; charitable; exchange of experience. A similar tradition of traveling to holy places has existed throughout the history of mankind. However, it was only in the Christian era that the indissoluble connection of pilgrimage with religious experience became a special practice.

The Russian pilgrimage experience has five main historical stages. The chronological framework of the third (Palestinian) stage is associated with events starting from the second half of the XIX century. before the First World War, when – against the background of increasing tension in relations between the great powers, the formation of the ground for a global military confrontation, internal and external crisis manifestations – the role of the East in international politics increases. During this period, the interest of the Russian Empire in the Middle East region increased, which led to the imperative of argumentation of its intentions regarding the territories of the Ottoman Empire, which contributed to the strengthening of the Russian spiritual presence in Palestine and the intensification of pilgrimage activities in this direction, which since the second half of the XIX century were consistently supported at the state and church levels.

For this purpose, the RDM is being founded, land plots are being acquired and built up in the Holy Land, appropriate infrastructure is being created, as well as the Russian Shipping and Trade Society and a number of other government structures. Later, the IPPO was founded, which became the main organizer of the Russian spiritual presence, including the Orthodox pilgrimage. This Society had a high status and significant state and church support, having a large number of landholdings, as well as schools, teachers' seminaries and colleges in Palestine, Lebanon and Syria, where thousands of students were enrolled. The IPPO's activities – aimed at organizing Russian pilgrimages, supporting and developing Orthodoxy in the region, scientific and publishing work – largely contributed to the systematic increase in the number of pilgrims from Russia to the Holy Land in the second half of the XIX – early XX century, whose travels acquired an increasingly massive and systematic character until the events of 1917.