Review: The key goal of this research lies in presenting the basic terminology and structure of the phenomenon of data diplomacy, as well as in forming the methodological framework based on the empirical manifestations of data diplomacy in the modern context. The subject of this article is the examination of the three semantic concepts of data diplomacy: “data in diplomacy”, “diplomacy for data”, and “data for diplomacy”, as well as the possibilities of their intersection and interaction for achieving political goals. Using the Russian and international political examples, the author describes the manifestations of these concepts in diplomatic practice. The relevance of data diplomacy emerges due to the ongoing technological changes, which provide new instruments and capabilities for traditional diplomacy. The existing gap between the emergence of new technological instruments, namely those related to big data, and their implementation in the traditional diplomacy of any country, requires deliberate attention and development of methodology that allows determining the key trends in transition from traditional diplomacy to data diplomacy. The main results of the conducted research consists in the formation of a framework for studying data diplomacy, as well as outlining the key legal, ethical, and technological challenges and problems of using big data and their impact upon the role and work of a diplomat, as well as interaction of various actors in the international relations. This brings novelty into the Russian scope of works on digital diplomacy, since the aforementioned framework of data and definition of the key challenges based on it have not been previously reflected in the Russian research.

Keywords: categorization, technology, digital diplomacy, international relations, framework, terminology, big data, data diplomacy, diplomacy transformation, data diplomacy challenges

Review: The object of this research is the consequences of migration crisis in the European Union. The subject of this research is instruments for including nationalism in the sociopolitical agenda and legislation of Denmark, as well as the problem of interaction between the identities and Muslim ethnocentrism in the European Union. The article explores the theoretical aspects of the modern transformation of nationalism in Northern Europe, transition of nationalism from a marginal phenomenon towards a strong political force. Special attention is given to the analysis of legislative amendments of Denmark and Sweden in the conditions of migration crisis. The authors also discuss the problem of the conflict of identities in the European Union, interaction and transformations within the framework of the dialogue between immigrant communities and titular nations. The novelty of this research consists in carrying out a comparative analysis of the current development of nationalism in Sweden and Denmark, as well as their legislation on migration. The article covers the current processes pertinent to the problem of interaction of multiple civil-political and ethnocultural identifications, which is a pressing issue for the European Union. The authors’ special contribution lies in determination of the common and distinctive features in development of the modern Swedish and Danish nationalism, analysis of the foundation of the forming pan-European identity in the context of interculturalism and postnationalism. The conclusion is made on the crucial role of harmonization of the normative-value foundation of identity as a mediator of modern nationalization of the EU member-states.

Keywords: multiculturalism, nationalism, migration legislation, Sweden, Denmark, migration, European Union, interculturalism, postanationalism, international relations

Review: This article analyzes the German leadership in settlement of the three crises faced by the European Union – the eurozone crisis (2009-2015), migration crisis (2015-2020), and COVID-19 crisis (2020-2021) – in order to determine the specificity of the leadership of Germany in the EU. The conceptual approach for the analysis includes the leadership criteria offered by the German researcher Joachim Schild, which allow drawing the line between the hegemonic and non-hegemonic leadership, as well as consider the factor of legitimacy and soft power. The author also discusses the role of factors that hold back the fulfillment of the leadership potential of Germany. The novelty this research consists in application of this approach for determining the specificity of German leadership on the example of settlement of crises and challenges faced by the European Union, including the ongoing crisis caused by COVID-19 pandemic. The use of case study method allows concluding that Germany, indued with, is capable to show its leadership potential only in the conditions of cooperation with France. The author believes that its successful leadership is impeded by the domestic political factors and politicization of the European agenda in the EU member-states. The relevance of drawn conclusions consists in their contribution to further analysis and forecast of the foreign policy actions of Germany aimed at settling the COVID-19 crisis and other challenges faced by the European Union at the current stage of development.

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic, refugees, refugee crisis, France, European Cetral Bank, Eurozone crisis, European Union, Germany, regional leadership, hegemony

Review: This article explores the role of Central Asia in modern conditions, which significantly increases in geopolitical and geoeconomic aspect. Attention is given to the general security challenges of Central Asian countries, as this region requires the coordination of efforts of the leading global actors, as well as Central Asian countries themselves. Security issues associated with vulnerability of Central Asian countries to natural disasters and emergency situations that may occur as a result of territorial disputes, ethnic violence, drug trafficking, and terrorism prevention, fight against extremism underline the need for multilateral cooperation aimed at solution of general problems. The novelty of this research lies in the fact that after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which changed the world political map, the newly formed Central Asian countries gave acquired statehood on the international arena. Namely during this difficult period, the Central Asian countries were forced to choose their own development path. Russia and China, to certain extent, have confirmed their presence in the region by creating the economic and military integration institutions with participation of Central Asian countries. Therefore, the emphasis is placed on the analysis of interaction between China and Russia in the post-Soviet Central Asia, their role in ensuring regional stability and economic growth. The article also examines the importance of studying the role of the United States and the European Union in Central Asia.

Keywords: trade and economic cooperation, energy cooperation, geopolitics, security, world powers, Central Asia, competitive fight, China, Russia, USA

Review: Confrontation between the two most economically developed countries and the advent of coarse trade wars has disturbed the international arena in 2017. One of the causes for such contradictory relations is presidency and election campaign of Donald Trump, who actively advocated the need to change the structure of relations between the United States and China. This article is an attempt to get a grasp on the origins of contradictions, trace the chronology of the development of trade wars, and carry out a comprehensive analysis of the methods and instruments used by the governments of both countries to resolve the conflict. The key goal of this research is to determine the main causes underlying the trade-economic rivalry between China and the United States, as well as the prerequisites for the emergence of trade wars between the countries. Special attention is given to the U. S. – China contradictions during the presidency of D. Trump. Methodological framework is comprised of theoretical methods of analysis, synthesis, and comparison, as well as systematic approach for examining the key challenges emerging in the trade relations between China and the United States, and mechanisms for overcoming them. In the studying the in-depth motives of the modern conflict, the authors referred to the power transition theory, which clarifies the origins of contradictions between the countries. The novelty of this work consist is consideration of the current stage of U. S.  – China trade war, which continues despite the outbreak of the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. The conclusion is made that the contradictions between PRC and the United States are of compound, and thus, not limited by contradictions in the trade-economic sphere, which conditions for long-run conflict.

Keywords: imbalance in trade and economic cooperation, financial policy, political regime, duties, rivalry, confrontation between two countries, trade wars, trade deficit, trade sanctions, pandemic Covid-19