Abstract: The article is devoted to the problems of the methodology of the study of petroglyphs of architectural structures of the North Caucasus. The author considers methodological approaches to the interpretation of their semantics, taking into account the dual nature of petroglyphs of architectural structures, which, on the one hand, are a special cultural phenomenon with their pictorial traditions and a set of symbols, and, on the other, genetically go back to rock art, respectively, possessing the properties of rock paintings. The author believes that, interpreting the semantics of petroglyphs and their compositions, it is very important to take into account the historical context in which they were created and consider their significance in line with religious traditions relevant to the population of that era. According to the author, epic formulas or ideograms that originate in rock art play a special role in deciphering the meaning of petroglyphs of architectural structures, and in petroglyphs of architectural structures they acquire a specific character due to a narrow set of sacred symbols. The methodological basis of the research is a set of general historical, ethnographic and archaeological research methods, the use of which is determined by the nature of the material being studied. The author believes that, despite the difficulties of interpreting petroglyphs of architectural structures associated with the reconstruction of religious and mythological representations of the ancient population, it is a certain set of sacred symbols and their compositions, as well as epic formulas, that are the key to their deciphering. Petroglyphs of architectural structures have their origin in ancient rock art, which makes it possible to use in their research, including methodological techniques for studying rock paintings, the historiography of which has almost 150 years and a huge number of scientific monographs and articles. At the same time, the petroglyphs of medieval buildings in the North Caucasus possessed expressive self-sufficiency, which allowed the peoples of the region to use it to fix their religious, mythological and social traditions for transmission to the next generations.

Keywords: visual traditions, mythology, religious ideas, methods of studying petroglyphs, petroglyphs of architectural structures, rock art, epic formulas, religious buildings, medieval folk architecture, North Caucasus

Abstract: This paper examines the importance of Chinese ethnicity through the example of the historically first dynasty named the Yuan Dynasty, where the rulers were nomadic conquerors and not of Han descent. The aim of the paper is to explore the ethnic aspect of the process of liquidating the Yuan Empire and the importance of the unity of the Chinese people. The methodology of the paper includes the use of different resources, including chronicles, historical research and sources showing the realities not only from the Chinese side, but also from the Mongol side. This approach makes it possible to consider the issue from both sides and obtain more objective conclusions. The results show that the importance of the unity of the Chinese people became evident as early as the Han era, when the concept of "Han man" became politically significant. For the first time, cultural attributes were no longer the only factor uniting people, and nationality became crucial to the unity of the state. The scope of the work includes the study of Chinese history, ethnic relations and nationality issues. The novelty of the work lies in the use of different sources and consideration of the issue from different angles, which allows for a more complete picture of historical process. The conclusions of the paper emphasise the importance of nationality as a sign for state unity and show that national problems can become a factor that can weaken and destroy even the most powerful states.

Keywords: China, ethnic aspect, Mongols, nationality, Yuan Empire, ethnicity, Han, Chinese history, Chinese culture, ethnic conflict

Abstract: The object of research attention in the article was the phenomenon of the origins of law. The main approaches in Russian historiography to the definition of the sources of law and their relationship with the sources of law are considered as the subject of the study. The purpose of the work is to attempt to substantiate the need to separate the sources of law from the semantically overloaded category of sources of law into an independent category. The author pays special attention to the polarity of opinions in the existing discussion regarding the origins of law, which is due to both the lack of elaboration of the problem, the polysemy of the term "source", and the differences in approaches to legal understanding. The author focuses on the fact that in various classifications there is a special division of the sources of law into "primary", which once in ancient times laid the foundation for the institution of law, and "secondary", functionally feeding the law up to the present. On this basis, regardless of the approach to understanding law, it seems logical to separate the "primary" sources of law into a separate theoretical category of "sources of law" with the prospect of its consolidation in the theory of state and law. The practical significance of the allocation and the need for a special study of the origins of law are justified by the fact that the search and identification of the chronologically oldest sources of law in the system of regulatory regulation of a potestar-early class society can be the key to an attempt to develop a universal, integrative definition of law.

Keywords: legal custom, judicial precedent, Neolithic court, genesis of law, mononorm, tribal community, law-forming factors, sources of law, origins of law, legal anthropology

Abstract: The pragmatic turn and the philosophy of pragmatism in versions X. Putnam and R. Bernstein are presented in the form of general epistemological attitudes of the most promising areas of historical thought in the United States. Under their methodological influence, everyday practices and the historical experience of rationalization of activities were at the center of research interests. Ideas about the relationship between macro and micro levels of historical reality have changed, determinism has been abandoned, new forms of historical description have appeared. The author's goal is to reveal the content of these concepts, to determine their role in specific research areas, as well as to try to characterize the specifics of the American version of the pragmatic turn. In the first part of the article, the analysis of the most significant trends for the development of historical science in the USA related to the correction of ideological ideas and cognitive principles of the philosophy of pragmatism is carried out. In the second part of the article, the key theses, concepts, conceptual and terminological apparatus of the works of leading experts on transnational, social, environmental, and legal history are correlated with the theoretical provisions of the pragmatic turn in social and humanitarian knowledge. A multidimensional review of the development of modern American historiography is presented. The ways of resolving previous scientific contradictions and constructing new variants of national identity, ways of updating the methodological arsenal and updating historical knowledge are described.

Keywords: transnational history, legal history, environmental history, social history, actors, constructivism, experience, practices, pragvmatic turn, pragmatism

Abstract: The subject of the article is the symbolic meaning of black color in the culture and folklore of various civilizations, especially in the Russian, French and Chinese traditions. The research aims to identify the evolution of the perception of black color over time and its role in religious, mythological and socio-cultural contexts. The author examines the transformations of the symbolism of the black color, its connection with myths, rituals and ideas about the world in various cultures, as well as its significance as a reflection of social and cultural norms and values. The research is aimed at identifying common and unique features in the perception of black color, its role in religious and ritual practices. The methodology is based on the collection and analysis of cultural texts on the symbolism of the black color in Slavic and Chinese cultures. Comparative analysis and contextual research methods are used to identify the role and significance of black color in culture and society. The novelty of the research lies in the analysis of the symbolism of black color in Russian, French and Chinese cultures through the prism of mythology and folklore. In Russian mythology and folklore, black color is associated with dark forces, death and the afterlife. It is dangerous, but it also has protective properties. In French mythology and folklore, black color is often associated with mystery, magic and riddles. It may symbolize death, but it also carries elegance and style. In Chinese mythology and folklore, black color is usually associated with death and ancestor worship. It can also symbolize power and authority. These results not only expand our understanding of mythological representations, but also highlight the importance of cultural context in interpreting color symbols.

Keywords: Linguistic picture of the world, Proverbs, Phraseologisms, Color designations, Chinese language, French language, Coloratives, Russian language, Comparative analysis, Black color

Abstract: The article is devoted to the history of studying the events of the defense of Tsaritsyn during the Civil War within the framework of the publishing project "IGV", implemented in the 1930s on the initiative and with the active participation of M. Gorky. Based on the documents of the editorial secretariat, which are currently stored in the Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, it was established that a team of three authors was responsible for writing the corresponding section of the multi-volume work: professional historians, students of M.N. Pokrovsky, G.E. Meerson and E.B. Genkina, and a direct participant in the events, one of the military leaders of the Red Army I.F. Tkachev's army. The work of each of the team members is characterized. It is shown what role participation in this project played in the biographies of the authors. The writing of the history of Tsaritsyn's defense is analyzed in the context of the political, cultural, and intellectual processes that determined the development of historical science during the establishment of the totalitarian system in the USSR. As the study showed, writing a work on the history of Tsaritsyn's defense in 1918, sustained in the spirit of the cult of personality, but possessing formal signs of scientific historical research, was an important task, the solution of which was followed by people who held senior party and government posts in the Soviet Union in the 1930s. Two of the three authors who did not show Due to their diligence in this work (G.E. Meerson and I.F. Tkachev), they were arrested and shot. For G.E. Meerson, the failure to write the defense of Tsaritsyn could have been a decisive factor that determined his fate. E.B. Genkina, having managed to successfully complete this work, became a recognized authority in the community of Soviet historians.

Keywords: Cult of personality, historiography, Joseph Stalin, History of the Civil War, Maksim Gorky, Civil War, defense of Tsaritsyn, Esfir Genkina, Grigory Meerson, Ivan Tkachev

Abstract: The author considers the problem of the essence of the phenomenon of pilgrimage and its manifestations using the example of pilgrimage activities of the Russian Empire in Palestine in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. The methodological basis of the research is the provisions of neorealism and the systems approach, the derivative of which was the use of historical-genetic, comparative and activity methods. It is shown that pilgrimage is defined as a journey to holy places and relics of sacred significance along a certain route for religious, health or other purposes. This activity includes four stages and is characterized by the presence of seven functions: spiritual-educational; educational; missionary; communication; uniting parishes; charitable; exchange of experience. The tradition of traveling to holy places has existed throughout human history. In the Christian era the inextricable connection of pilgrimage with religious experience became a special practice. It was revealed that the experience of Russian pilgrimage includes five stages. The third (Palestinian) stage is characterized by an increase in the Russian Empire's interest in the Middle East region. This necessitated the need to argue Russia’s intentions regarding the territories of the Ottoman Empire, contributing to the strengthening of the Russian spiritual presence in Palestine and the intensification of the pilgrimage movement in this direction, which from the second half of the 19th century consistently supported at the state and church levels. As a result, the Russian Spiritual Mission was founded, land plots were acquired and developed in the Holy Land, and infrastructure was created. State and church structures accompanying this activity were founded. Then the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society was created, which became the main organizer of the Russian spiritual presence, missionary and pilgrimage activities in the region during the period under review.

Keywords: Eastern Question, Middle Eastern region, Holy Land, Palestine, Russian Orthodox Church, Russian Empire, pilgrimage, Russian Spiritual Mission, IOPS, missionary activity