Abstract: The author of the article raises a question about the relevance of philosophy of labour as a special branch of current knowledge. This question comes to mind as a result of the devaluation of both the term 'labour' and obliged and important nature of labour. Consumer society cherishes the idea of the kind of society when humans withdraw themselves from labour activity and delegates all labour functions to machines. Such desacralization of labour creates numerous philosophical issues covered by the author of the present article. Within the framework of this branch of knowledge, it appears necessary to raise a question about the role of labour in human life in general as well as particular relation between labour and human nature. Gurevich bases his research on philosophical and anthropological research methods that view human nature as having the two meanings, general content of human existence and particular everyday human life. The author assumes that without understanding human nature, it is impossible to develop a universal comprehension of the phenomenon of labour. According to the author, labour is just another side of human existence just like love, game and death. There are the things human existence is impossible without. In addition, Gurevich also discusses the role of labour in human development. Gurevich also carries out a critical analysis of Georg Simmel's theory. The author also outlines a range of questions to be analyzed in the future. 

Keywords: labour, philosophy, nature, human nature, human existence, society, life, values, equality, justice

Abstract: The subject of the present research article is the structure and performance features of the scientific theological method. Modern discussions often involve diametrically opposite views on whether it is possible to speak of a specific method for obtaining new knowledge in terms of theology or we should better deal with the problem of applying scientific methods to theological reserches. In his article Polskov demonstrates that this situation is mostly created by the fact that participants of discussions usually have a different understanding of the term 'method'. The author of the present article keeps to the broad definition of method as the mean to achieve a result. The author shows that such an approach consistutes the specific features of the theological method. In his research Polskov analyzes the structure of the theological method. He demonstrates that a scientist who applies the theological method performs the three interdependent procedures proceeding from the semantic structure analysis of a phenomenon under research to the exegesis of this phenomenon. To describe the procedure that is applied by a theologist at the third stage of his research, the author of the article introduces the term 'theological correlation'. By performing 'theological correlation', a theologist conforms results obtained at previous stages of his research to soteriological ideals that are set forth by the Church authority and fixed in the Holy Tradition. The main research method used by the author in his research is the philosophical analysis of the process of theological research combined with the axiological approach to viewing a theological research as the research with the eschatological orientation and existential meaning for human. The scientific novelty of the research is caused by the fact that the author describes a special nature of dialogueness of the theological method as well as views the theological method not only as the method studying the 'inside' of a theological research but also the method that studies the 'outside' of a theological research including all kinds of cultural phenomena and processes. In conclusion, the author provides a number of practical examples of the research model offered in this article. 

Keywords: onto-gnoseological phenomenon, dialogueness, theological correlation, method in theology, theological method, methodology of science, divinity, theology, science, epistemology

Abstract: The article is devoted to reconstructing the elements of cosmological views in the societies that had existed before philosophy was created. According to the author's hypothesis, the main elements of cosmological views of the preliterate period are illustrated with the ritual of 'sacrifising a horse'. In his article Kuzmin makes an attempt to reconstruct the history of establishment and fixation of the sacrifice ritual (base on both historical-philosophical and archeological sources) as an existential cosmological model of the Bronze Age. The author analyzes how that model was described in writing materials (the Vedas). In his research Kuzmin has used the comparative analysis of textual sources and illustrations related to the subject under research as well as the critical analysis of previously published researches by Russian and foreign scientists. Based on the analysis undertaken in this research, the author considers whether Cosmos models could exist already in the third century BC. The main conclusion of the article is that at the turn of the IVth - IIIth centuries the idea of 'Cosmos originating from the sacrifice of Heavenly Horse' was created. That idea was fixed in the symbols of Northern constellations. 

Keywords: cosmological models, constellation map, mythology, constellations, Cosmos, ontology of science, preclassical science, ritual, uranography, metauranography

Abstract: In a number of contemporary philosophical teachings the phenomenon of transgression takes the same place as the phenomenon of transcedence in classical metaphysics. The purpose of the present research article is to explicate the place and role of transgression in Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's and Friedrich Nietzsche's teachings. Philosophical searches of the aforesaid philosophers were carried out at the border between classical and nonclassical philosophies and thus finalized classical metaphysics and anticipated conceptual findings of the XXth century. The author of the present article has conducted a comparative research of the dialectical interaction between transgression and transcedence in Hegel's and Nietzsche's works. In addition to traditional research methods the author has partly used the methodological tools of deconstructivist and poststructuralist approaches. Faritov has also applied the method of comparative analysis. According to the researcher, in Hegel's works transgression is shown as a dialectical process of denial, removal and overcoming of definite borders of particular discourses. Hegel included transgression into the metadiscourse about absolute Idea and Spirit. That is the point where transgression completes its function of extension of definite borders of particular final discourses to maximum and infinite certainty of the transcendental metadiscourse. Hegel's teaching deals with the internal transgression as part of the metaprospect of transdendence. Nietzsche refused from the idea of dialects being governed by the transcendence metadiscourse. Transgression prospects involves transcendence as a particular step to be made in the dialectical process. 

Keywords: Nietzsche, Hegel, metadiscourse, discourse, prospect, transcedence, transgression, dialectics, removal, ways of existence

Abstract: In his article Rozin views sociality as ultimate ontology and dispositif, i.e. heterogeneous ideal construct that is used to solve methodological problems and to explain discourses on sociality. The author of the article describes the five main 'tops' in the dispositif of sociality (i.e. independent but complementary outlines of research): the method (approach, values, framework) used by a researcher to construct sociality; description (analysis) of directed and spontaneous social transformations; characteristics of interaction between subjects of social actions including society, government, communities, individuals and personalities; structure and description of a social action allowing to direct the process of social transformation; and interpretation of sociality as an organism. The author provides a description of each 'top'. Rozin has applied the methodological approach allowing to accomplish problematisation and case study and to construct the dispositif of sociality at first approximation. General theoretical provisions are based on the analysis of cases. As a result of his research, Rozin has managed to describe sociality as ultimate ontology and to define the five 'horizons' therein. The three horizons are central, social transformations that are directed by social messages and contribute to the integral development; interaction between social action subjects who ensure the progress of these transformations; and values of a researcher as well as his approach to studying sociality. 

Keywords: individuals, community, society, the message, transformation, social action, sociality, personality, development, social organism

Abstract: This article is devoted to the analysis of epistemological features of the concept of communicative rationality, the content of which is relevant to modern philosophy. The overview of concepts on the problem presented in the article demonstrates that communicative rationality relates to the theory of knowledge, theories of communicative action, of complicated self-developing systems, synergetics, and self-organization associated with constant variability and dynamism in relations between people. Modern concepts of communicative rationality is presented in comparison to the research in "human dimension" and interdisciplinary areas. The author emphasizes the need for the application of communicative rationality to special subject areas. The research process is based on the methodology of comparative philosophical analysis aimed at acquiring new scientific knowledge. The author of the article proposes the thesis about the ability of epistemology that explores the content and meaning of communicative rationality in the field of knowledge to comprehensively take into account the diversity of situations of human communication. The author shows the relationship of the research problems with social and cultural processes taking place in public life and practical requests for opening perspectives and implementation of procedures, discussions, and making rational, agreed decisions. 

Keywords: communicative rationality, theory of knowledge, network space, epistemological approach, interdisciplinarity, self-organization, information and communication processes, synergetics, axiological orientation

Abstract: The subject of the article is collecting as a socio-cultural phenomenon. The author of the article aims to discover philosophical-anthropological premises for the Western cultural tradition to show individual collectors in a bad light and to speak of them as fanatics, speculators and maniacs. Being an inadequate reflection of the reality, this tradition is encouraged by a number of economic factors defining peculiarities of popular culture. However, initially this tradition is based on Freudian methdology of choice and analysis of cultural phenomena. Implementation of this scheme is viewed as mythologisation and the main systematically important element thereof, the sublimation theory, is qualified as a pseudo-scientific myth. The basic research method used by the author is the critical analysis of historical and philosophical texts and social-phenomenological study of social and cultural phenomena at the empirical and theoretical levels. As part of his historical and philosophical excursus, the author of the article offers to view Sigmund Freud's sublimation theory as viewed by Max Scheler. Rejecting vulgar interpretations of the sublimation theory as 'spiritual alchemistry', Max Scheler still found the rational kernel in Freud's theory. The author of the present article assumes that this is the point of coincidence of the two philosophers which allows to speak of the influence made by Freud on metaphysics of late Scheler. Following the idea of Karl Marx on 'spontaneous activity', the author of the article concludes that collecting is an expression of freedom, active self-realization of human in his leisure time, and a form of active self-fulfiment of personality in a society. To the author's opinion, a collector can be referred to neither Freud's homo libidinosus, nor to Nietzsche's homo politicus, nor to Marx' homo oeconomicus. Just like any other subject of a cultural practice, collector is encouraged by spiritual aspirations and appetences rather than the three basic existential forces named above. These spiritual aspirations and appetences are dictated by values, ideals and cultural standards. They cannot be reduced to none of these forces, neither do they consistute all of them altogether. 

Keywords: naturalistic reductionism, universal explanatory scheme, sublimation, libido, popular (mass) culture, philosophical-anthropological premises, collecting, freedom, human personality, spontaneous activity

Abstract: In the process of social development culture performs the function of 'crystallisation' of economic changes. At the time of social revolutions antagonism between different classes reaches the point when it can't be overcome and, as a result, culture and social values happen to be in different coordinate systems which leads to more misunderstanding between classes. Consequently, values that used to unite people of different social groups stop existing in the period of revolutions. The broken balance of values is expressed at the three levels, structural, cultural-historical and individual ones, which agrees to Marx' triad 'general-particular-singular'. The aforesaid disharmony is the subject of the present research. The research is based on the concept of socioeconomic formations that is used to study social development. Classical Marxism is enriched with the author admitting a more active role of the cultural 'superstructure' in the hsitorical process. The main method of the research is the historical comparative analysis. The author of the article describes the three groups of values. According to the author,  the balance between these groups of values 'crystallise' the interaction between the formal historical and specific historical logics of social development. Not only a specific culture changes the course of history but so does the historical memory of a nation, general symbols and myths that express the entire system of values of a community. The system of values legitimate (or reject) this or that form of social restructuring which makes it to be one of the drivers of social development. In some countries Peasants' War never turns into revolution (like in Germany of the XVIth century) and in other countries it does lead to a revolution or even an execution of a king (England of the XVIIth century). 

Keywords: specific historical logic, socioeconomic formation, social development, social revolution, cultural and historical values, structural values, individual values, formal historical rule, bourgeois revolution, balance of values

Abstract: This article presents the study of system and structural properties of concrete forms of social communication at a certain stage of their formation and development. The comparative research of various historical forms of social communication presented as the procedural aspects of the functioning of social communication systems. In particular, the author focuses on virtual communication as a form of social communication. The author views transcendentalism and transgression as the methods of provision of such type of communication. The former is presented in the structuralist approach to the study, the latter is presented  in the constructivist approach. Within the framework of the present research the concept of virtual social communication is based on the structural-functional and socio-constructivist approaches. The study explicated such modes of existence of virtual social communication as a virtual social space and virtual social time. It is established that regulation of the virtual social communication involves both structural and constructivist factors. At the end of the article the author makes a conclusion that further studies of virtual social phenomena can be productive only if they take into account the dual nature of such phenomena. 

Keywords: polyontism, social constructionism, structuralism, transgression, virtual social communication, social communication system, virtual social space, social structure, social construct, virtualization

Abstract: Definition of the essence of culture is often taken as a simple task. However, in her article Paleeva demonstrates that in the process of searching for self-identity, culture faces serious contradictions which reflects the complex nature of the phenomenon itself. Thus, even etymology of the word 'culture' hides in itself the following variants of cultural existence. Even more paradoxes are associated with the process of culture genesis. In one case, culture is viewed as the generation of nature and earthly circumstances of human life which was later developed further. In the other case, culture is associated with the word 'cult' which relates this phenonomenon to the transcendental feeling. In her research Paleeva has used the methodology of philosophy of culture. This branch of knowledge has accumulated numerous methods and procedures that allow to analyse oppositions to culture. For the first time in Russian academic literature the author of the article is viewing complexities of cultural self-identity. The author also makes an attempt to analyze contradictions between ethic cultures and universal cultures, local cultures and general cultures. The author compares the two research tendencies that have developed in contemporary science. She also carries out a critical analysis of the other researchers' attempts to view primordialism as plain antiques and to give a negative assessment of that tradition from the point of view of the social progress. Meanwhile, many authors speak highly of constructivism as the newest achievement of philosophy and science. In her article Paleeva also provides a critical analysis of peculiarities of modern constructivism.  

Keywords: universals, cult, nature, primordialism, constructivism, self-identity, identity, philosophy, culture, spirituality

Abstract: The object of the research is civil philosophy that is usually understood as the philosophy of politics (or state). At the same time, today civil philosophy is often related to civil society and development of civic position. Moreover, civil philosophy is viewed not only as a branch of applied (i.e. practical) philosophy but also as a wide scope of studies of ontological, axiological, anthropological and social philosophical issues. The contradiction in interpretation of the epistemological status of civil philosophy is solved by pointing out the civic nature of sayings of ancient sages, discussing the mission and role of philosophical schools in civic education, the Renaissance civic humanism, the theme of civic world as the starting point in civil philosophy of Bacon, Hobbes and Locke as well as civic context of the Englightenment principle of common sense and reason. Based on the results of the analysis, the researcher concludes that philosophy is qualified as civil philosophy not only according to the main themes (patriotism, the human rights, etc.) but mostly according to the appropriate and accepted interpretation of the main anthologiums and topical issues. In his research of the phenomenon of civil philosophy Tyugashev has used the socio-cultural approach viewing the existence of philosophy in the society taking into account all the variety of its socio-cultural forms. Civil philosophy is included in the scope of spiritual and practical forms of philosophy which also involves public philosophy, popular philosophy, school (academic) philosophy, 'home' philosophy, etc. The scientific novelty of the research is caused by the fact that the researcher has described civil philosophy as an element of civil society. He suggests that we should view civil philosophy as the constitutive element of civic awareness and civi spiritual culture co-existing with civic mythology and civil religion, civic art and civic science. According to the author, civil philosophy is the worldview reflection of civil society that is implicitly established in the Constituion. 

Keywords: official philosophy, civil philosophy, civic wisdom, civic religion, civic humanism, civic culture, civil society, metaphilosophy, public philosophy, philosophy of Constitution

Abstract: The paper is focused on P. Ricoeur's interpretation of the personal narrative self-identity problem developed within the framework of his hermeneutical phenomenology and his understanding of the unity of identity and selfhood in the process of creating a reflexive image of 'Self' that appeared in the dialogue with analytical philosophy. Based on that, the authors of the article discuss particular features of Ricoeur's polemics with different versions of the objectivist approaches to personality and personality expression in language acts, actor and action from the point of view of semantics and pragmatics that were created within the framework of analytic philosophy and in fact led to some kind of liquidation of 'Self' desite the unique unity and timely existence of Self. In their research the authors have applied the hermeneutical strategy to interpreting the theme as well as a wide range of methods that are used in historical and philosophical analysis. The novelty of the research is caused, first and foremost, by the fact that the authors demonstrate peculiarities of the constructive dialogue that was established by Ricoeur with the leading representatives of contemporary analytical philosophy in the process of creating his own personal narrative self-identity doctrine. The program of the synthesis of analytical philosophy and hermeneutics offered by Ricoeur may be evaluated as a sufficiently valid and realizable approach when applied to the problem of the narrative identity as the expression of personal life unity.

Keywords: personality, identity, Self, selfhood, action, event, pragmatics, semantics, personalism, narrative identity, hermeneutics

Abstract: The subject of the research is the concept of faith of Lev Shestov and Lev Tolstoy. The object of the research is Lev Tolstoy's religious and moral teaching and Lev Shestov's philosophy. Special attention is paid to the relationship between faith and reason, faith and morals and the difference in the philosophers' views on human's attitude to the absolute beginning of the world. The purpose of the research is to show general 'ethical' orientation of Shestov's and Tolstoy's philosophies and to analyze their subjective attitude to the world that was based on different grounds. The research methodology involves integrated analysis of sources on the research subject. The researcher has also used the method of comparative analysis. The main conclusions of the research are the following: while Shestov viewed faith and reason as mutually exclusive, Tolstoy saw faith as the proof of reason and reason as the 'way' to faith. Shestov also opposed faith to morals while Tolstoy considered fath to be an essential prerequisite for moral behavior. Nevertheless, both Shestov's and Tolstoy's philosophies in fact have the general ethical intention: Shestov views the idea of faith as the reliance of morals not as a result of the 'possible' and the 'must' restrictions but as a result of nondetermined decisions of an absolute subject. Tolstoy related the idea of morals to the highest 'Self' that was viewed as the ideal and attitude to which was created within the space of moral perfection. 

Keywords: faith, morals, reason, subject, world in general, ethics, responsibility, God, good, evil

Abstract: It is Georgy Fedotov's idea that just like a philosopher and historian, a poet performs educating and identifying functions and often appears to be a messenger of approaching changes. To what degree does this statement deserve to be treated seriously? It would be obviously unscientific to admit that a poet can play a role of a medium. On the other hand, many literary geniuses have been prophets. A good example is Lermontov and his poem 'Prophecy' written in 1830 when Lermontov spoke of a 'dreadful year of Russia' when 'the crown of Russia shall fall'. The subject of the present research article is Alexander Blok's poetic heritage, its conceptual and prophetic potentials. The method of analysis is Sergey Bulgakov's statement that a teacher can create his own interpretation of a poem through 'summarizing thoughts and impressions thereof' as well as Mikhail Bakhtin's idea that a person who perceives a poetical work also perceives its 'rhythm, intonation, articulatory tension, and internal gestures' and, thus, starts to 'think and live according to culture'. The novelty of the article (and the main conclusion) is that the author emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary research in the integrated analysis of Alexander Blok's poetical writing who, as he said himself, felt the future in the music of his poems. According to the author, such analysis could have been made by literary critics, poets and experts in musical creativity. 

Keywords: history, philosophy, music, creativity, government, poetry, people, poet, Blok, social consciousness

Abstract: Research subject: the researcher analyzes the terms 'criterion' and 'symptom' in Ludwig Wittgenstein's writings. In particular, Loreti examines the theories of criterion and symptom introduced by Wittgenstein in his works 'Blue Book', 'Philosophical Remarks' and 'Philosophical Investigations'. The researcher emphasizes the influence of verificationism on Wittgenstein's concepts of 'criterion' and 'symptom'. The author of the article also notes that late Wittgenstein believed in a rather unprecise and inaccurate difference between criterion and symptom. The author also analyzes the definition of identity in Wittgenstein's middle and late works. Research method or methodology: in this research Loreti has used the principle of textual analysis, in other words, the researcher has tried to demonstrate Wittgenstein's views through the philosopher's quotations and texts. Scientific novelty and conclusions: the scientific novelty of the research is caused by the fact that the author of the article analyzes the concept of verificationism in late Wittgenstein's writings considering that this is a rather understudied theme both in Russian and foreign academic literature. The researcher also presents extracts from Wittgenstein's book 'Philosophical Remarks' ('Philosophische Bemerkungen') that has not been translated into Russian yet. The author concludes that throughout the philosophical activity of Ludwig Wittgenstein  from his 'Philosophical Remarks' to his 'Philosophical Investigations' we can witness the concept of symptom gradually advancing towards the concept of criterion as a result of a categorical denial of the classical epistemological approach that differentiated between and isolated a subject from an object of cognition. 

Keywords: senseless, Wittgenstein, criterion, symptom, verificationism, Philosophical Investigations, language, identity, Philosophical Remarks, epistemology

Abstract: In his review of the book 'Unknown God of Philosophy' written by the doctor of philosophy, professor Vladimir Varava, Nilogov brings out the eternal issue regarding 'the purpose' of philosophy. This is the issue that has been existing ever since philosophy was created as a science. In his book Varava manages to relate the fact of existence (ontological argument) to the searches for the human dimension of philosophy (anthropological argument), thus putting today's philosophical anthropology to the methodological 'deadlock' regarding whether human future is possible without human-dimensioned philosophy, and whether future of philosophy is possible without philosophy-dimensioned beings. The author of the review article applies the problem method, historical-philosophical method, methods of analysis and synthesis and dialectical approach to discovering contradictions. Vladimir Varava's thesis that philosophy has to sacrifice the truth for the sake of finding human features in human, thus rejecting the essential definitions of both human and philosophy itself, needs to be critisized. This raises a question regarding what type of philosophy is suggested, anthropological ('human-dimensioned') philosophy (when human talks about philosophy), philosophical anthropology (when philosophy talks about human) or philosophy-dimensioned philosophy (when philosophy talks about philosophy). 

Keywords: idol of philosophy, too human, philosophical anthropology, God, philosophy, existence, surprise, Varava, Ilyenkov, misanthropology