Tyndaris between Pompey and Octavian: Political, Strategic, and Cultural Transformations in the Life of the City

Lenchuk Vladislav YUr'evich Postgraduate student; Department of Ancient World History; Lomonosov Moscow State University 119234, Russia, Moscow, Universitetskaya pl., 1 lenchukvy@my.msu.ru Other publications by this author

Sicily, the largest island of the Mediterranean Sea, has played a very significant role in ancient geopolitics for centuries. Its geographical location between the Apennine Peninsula and Africa, at the intersection of the most important trade routes, made it a strategic object that attracted the attention of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, Greeks and Romans. The island occupied a central place in the economic and military-political history of antiquity, and its fertile lands attracted conquerors who sought to exploit the solid agricultural potential of Sicily. As a result, it became a place of intersection and active interaction of cultures, which contributed to the formation of a truly unique cultural and economic landscape on the island.

During the civil wars in Rome, Sicily once again found itself in the center of attention of various political forces, becoming a battlefield and an object of the struggle for power. Against the background of the confrontation between the various Roman factiones, Sextus Pompey managed to strengthen his influence on the island, using it as a stronghold in the struggle against Octavian and his allies. Sicily, with its numerous fortified cities and powerful navy, provided Pompey with strategic advantages, which he used to organize a blockade of Italy and strengthen his position in the fight against the triumvirs. However, after his defeat, Octavian finally established control over the island, turning it back into an agricultural reservoir that supplied Italy with grain.

Tyndaris was supposedly located on a high rocky coastal promontory near Patti Bay. It was founded in 396 BC by Dionysius I of Syracuse as a strategic outpost on the northern coast of Sicily. Throughout the entire pre-Roman history, Tyndaris was in the sphere of political influence of Syracuse ^{[4, p. 91; 21, p. 306]}. During the First Punic War, the city was captured by the Carthaginians, who used it as a naval base. In an attempt to come under Roman control, most of the noble citizens of Tyndaris were sent to Lilybaeum. In 254 BC, after the fall of Panormus, Tyndaris came under Roman rule along with Solunt and remained in its zone of influence until the end of the Republican period (Diod. XXIII. 5–18; Polyb. I. 25–27).

Archaeological research has shown that in the Middle Ages the territory of Tyndaris was not inhabited. This circumstance creates certain difficulties in studying its topographic development in the Hellenistic and Roman eras. The excavations of the 18th and 19th centuries were carried out unsystematically, as a result of which a significant number of artifacts, such as sculptures and inscriptions, ended up in various museums in Sicily and Italy without indicating their exact origin ^{[18, p. 30]}. Systematic archaeological excavations began here only after the Second World War, and the most significant of them were carried out in the 1990s - 2000s. The main part of the research was focused on the plain between the two peaks ^{[18, p. 30]}. During the Roman Empire, the city covered an area of about 27 hectares and was surrounded by a wall up to three kilometers long. However, initially the settlement was much smaller and was located in the southeastern part of the cape, gradually spreading to the north and west ^{[17, p.140]}.

After the end of the First Punic War in 241 BC, Tyndaris came under the control of the Roman Republic and was incorporated into the province of Sicily, which radically changed the life of the city ^{[14, pp. 87-89]}. With the advent of the Roman administration, new political structures and centralized governance appeared on the island, which significantly influenced local self-government. Although Tyndaris retained some degree of autonomy, its political institutions had to adapt to Roman realities and laws. Despite these changes, the city continued to play a very significant role in the economic life of the region due to its strategic location and agricultural resources. During this period, Sicily became Rome's main supplier of grain, and Tyndaris actively participated in this process, becoming an important link in the grain storage and transportation system ^{[4, p.110]}.

Information about the development of Tyndaris from its foundation to the 2nd century BC is extremely limited, while the dating of the original urban plan remains a matter of dispute. In the middle of the 20th century, it was believed that the rectangular layout of the city dates back to the time of the Corinthian commander Timoleon, but modern research indicates that the process of its formation could last from the foundation of the city until the end of the 3rd century BC ^{[8, pp. 130-133]}. The dates of construction of key facilities such as the theater and the city walls also remain uncertain due to the frequent reconstructions they have undergone over the centuries. These factors significantly complicate our understanding of the early topographic and architectural development of Tyndaris ^{[8, pp. 130-133]}.

Cicero writes about the status of Tyndaris under Roman rule in his speeches against Verres (Cic. Verr. II. 5. 124). The city was included in the category of civitates decumanae, which implied the need to pay Rome tithes from the harvest, but at the same time allowed it to maintain a certain autonomy. Taxation of the lands of Tyndaris was based on the decuma system, introduced according to Lex Hieronica ^{[9, p. 421]}. Over time, other taxes were added to this, such as altera decuma and frumentum imperatum. According to the Lex Terentia Cassia frumentaria law from 73 BC, the inhabitants of Sicily were obliged to sell grain to the Roman state at a fixed price ^{[9, p. 421]}.

Cicero also included Tyndaris among the "seventeen faithful cities" of Sicily, emphasizing its special role in ensuring Roman power on the island ^{[4, p. 116]}. The strategic importance of Tyndaris is confirmed by the functioning of its mint, especially during the Second Punic War, when coins were issued according to the Roman standard. After defeating Carthage, Scipio Africanus rewarded the city's inhabitants with a statue of Mercury (Cic. Verr. II. 4. 84), which became a symbol of their loyalty.

The social structure of Tyndaris underwent significant changes during this period. The institution of the clientele became an important mechanism of social mobility for the local elite, facilitating its integration into the Roman system of government. He played a key role in the process of romanization of the local ruling elite ^{[11, p.126]}. An example of this is the clientele of Pompeius Philo, whose influence on Sicily was due to the arrival of the Pompeii family on the island in 82 BC ^{[11, p.126]}. The names of prominent citizens of Tyndaris have come down to us, such as gymnasiarch Demetrius, Zosippus and Ismenia, whom Cicero calls “homines nobilissimi et principes Tyndaritanae civitatis” ^{[4, p. 116]}.

Most of the preserved architectural structures of Tyndaris, with the exception of the theater and the city walls, date back to the period of the Roman Empire ^{[8, pp. 135-140]}. Nevertheless, the city flourished in the II—I centuries BC. e. Tyndaris was distinguished by a high level of social and economic development, which allowed Cicero to name it “nobilissima civitas” (Cic. Verr. II. 4. 84). This is indirectly evidenced by the numerous examples of Verres stealing works of art that were in private collections as well as in public buildings. The location of the agora is still unknown, but information about public places and their role in the life of the city can be gleaned from Cicero's works. In one of the verrines, the speaker mentions the annual celebrations in honor of the statue of Mercury, presented to the city by Scipio and which Verres tried to appropriate for himself. When the city council objected to such outright robbery, Verres ordered that Proagoras Sopater be thrown from the roof of the portico (Cic. Verr. II. 4. 84-92). The Council, headed by Proagor, showed determination in opposing Verres, which indicates the existence of a long tradition of self-government in Tyndaris. Finally, there was undoubtedly at least one forum in Tyndaris, surrounded by porticos, from the roof of one of which Verres intended to throw Sopater.

The most studied residential sites in Tindaris are the so—called elite residences built in the late II - early I century BC ^{[11, p.126]}. These dwellings were located on terraces, which was due to the difficult terrain. La Torre notes that such residences corresponded to the fashion for the Asian architectural style, popular among the Roman aristocracy. These houses included spacious peristyles and exedra with colonnades, which attests to the high standard of living of the local elite. They contrasted sharply with the more modest dwellings found in other cities of Sicily, such as Minoan Heraclea and Fintia ^{[8, pp.81-82; 18, p. 34]}. The elite residences in Tyndaris indicate the existence of a wealthy local aristocracy. Cicero mentions that some villas, such as the villa of Gnaeus Pompeius ^{[11, p.116]}, were so spacious and luxurious that it was not considered shameful to receive the Roman governor in them (Cic. Verr. II. 2. 160). An additional evidence of the residence of very wealthy people in the city is the coastal villa discovered by archaeologists 15 km east of Tyndaris (the artifacts found there date back to the first half of the 1st century BC). Recent studies in the vicinity of Tyndaris also confirm the rise of agricultural production after the Second Punic War, especially in open and fertile lands ^{[4, pp.116-117]}.

Tyndaris acquired strategic importance during the war of Sextus Pompey and Octavian as one of the main fortified ports of the northeast coast. Even before the war, as Cicero points out, representatives of the local aristocracy had established ties with the Pompey family. Perhaps it was Tyndaris who issued coins during the reign of Sextus Pompey in Sicily ^{[1, p.83; 2, p.285; 3]}.

By 36 BC, Sicily was plunged into a state of political and economic turbulence caused by civil wars and the power struggle between Sextus Pompey and Octavian. Pompey, relying on runaway slaves and exiles, managed to create a powerful pirate state in Sicily ^{[20, p. 202]}. His army, consisting of people from a wide variety of social strata, was extremely heterogeneous, which made it difficult to lead it and coordinate military operations. However, Pompey managed to organize a fairly effective defensive system, which included fortifications located throughout the island: fortresses, outposts and a network of watchtowers along the coast, which ensured control over the movements of enemy forces and the security of important logistical routes ^{[6, p.141]}.

Tyndaris was called upon to play an important role in Pompey's defensive strategy. Its advantageous location on the northeastern coast of Sicily made it possible to control the sea routes and ensure communication with the rest of the cities on the coast. The city's fortifications included powerful walls, watchtowers, and outposts ^{[6, p.72]}, which made the city difficult for the enemy to reach. According to Dion Cassius, Pompey turned Tyndaris into a key stronghold to ensure control over the sea, which allowed him to impede the maneuvers of Octavian's fleet and make it difficult for enemy troops to supply food and other resources. Pompey's fleet patrolled the coast, protecting strategically important ports and logistics routes. His high-speed ships, equipped with light weapons, provided mobile defense of the coastline, intercepting the enemy and posing a threat to enemy vessels ^{[10, pp.251-252]}.

The military actions launched by Octavian in 36 BC became one of the most intense in the history of the civil war in Sicily. In an effort to finally eliminate Pompey's power on the island, Octavian organized a massive invasion ^{[23, p.83; 6, p. 123]}. His plan involved not only a land attack, but also a naval blockade of key ports such as Tyndaris. The blockade made it impossible for Pompey to bring weapons and food from the sea, depleting supplies in city warehouses and thereby reducing the morale of the defenders. Pompey used the fleet and city fortifications to hold back the advance of Octavian's troops. This tactic allowed him to hold his position for some time, successfully repelling enemy attacks. The delivery of water, food and weapons to Tyndaris was carried out by sea. The city played the role of a key defense point, providing a concentration of troops and communication with other areas of Sicily, which made it possible to coordinate defensive actions. However, the active actions of Agrippa's fleet and the rapid advance of the Roman legions led to the fall of Tyndaris. Agrippa, known for his military talents and energy, managed to organize a naval blockade and successfully attacked Pompey's fleet several times, which led to significant human and material losses in the camp of Octavian's opponents ^{[7, p.116]}. After losing control of Tyndaris, Octavian launched a decisive offensive against Pompey's other strongholds on the island. The legions under Agrippa's command advanced along the coast, capturing one enemy stronghold after another, which created the conditions for the encirclement of Pompey's troops and forced them to retreat. Octavian effectively used the numerical superiority and technical equipment of his army to achieve a strategic advantage, significantly weakening Pompey's position. The loss of Tyndaris was Pompey's first major defeat in a series of setbacks that eventually led to his defeat, flight, and death.

One of the most notable episodes of the campaign was the naval battle of Nauvlokh in September 36 BC. It was a turning point in the war between Pompey and Octavian and determined the future fate of Sicily ^{[20, p.231]}. The battle began with a massive offensive by Octavian's fleet under the command of Agrippa against the positions of Pompey's fleet, consisting of light and fast ships ^{[22, p. 214]}. Despite the tactical prowess that Pompey displayed at the very beginning of the battle, his fleet suffered significant losses. Pompey's ships were either destroyed or captured by the enemy, which led to the complete collapse of his entire defensive system. The loss of the fleet meant that Pompey could no longer effectively resist, so he had to flee. This battle predetermined the outcome of the war in favor of Octavian and marked the end of the pirate republic of Sextus Pompey. Octavian's fleet managed to get the better of the enemy, despite the experience of Pompey's captains. The loss of the fleet meant not only a military collapse, but also a complete decline in the morale of the defenders of Tyndaris and other cities still controlled by Pompey ^{[19, p.14]}.

After Pompey's defeat, the situation in Sicily changed dramatically. Tyndaris, like other cities on the island, has suffered heavy destruction. During the fighting, a significant part of the urban infrastructure was destroyed: the city walls were breached in several places, many buildings were destroyed or burned down. Local residents were forced to bear the heavy costs of maintaining Roman troops and perform various duties, such as repairing damaged fortifications, supplying food and supplying the army ^{[5, p. 292]}. Tyndaris was turned into a base for Roman troops, which meant an increase in the tax burden and forced labor. The city was in a state of economic decline: resources were depleted, many houses were destroyed, and the population decreased significantly. According to Strabo, after the war, Sicily was in a state of oliganthropy — a sharp decrease in population. This created favorable conditions for the Roman colonists, who had the opportunity to purchase land and engage in agriculture ^{[15, pp.521-522.]}. The land plots previously owned by the townspeople were redistributed in favor of Roman veterans and loyal supporters of Octavian. The urban life of Tindaris, like many other cities in Sicily, was destroyed, and the emphasis shifted in favor of agriculture and animal husbandry. The veterans who received the land began to create farms and estates, creating new economic relations in accordance with the Roman agrarian model ^{[19, p. 121]}.

Having established himself as the victor, Octavian set about reforming governance in Sicily, which also affected Tyndaris. The exact status of the city during this period is not fully clear, but it is likely that Tyndaris was transformed into a municipality with Latin law, which granted certain privileges to its inhabitants ^{[4, p. 119]}. These privileges included the opportunity to engage in trade, participate in solving local problems, and receive certain tax benefits. However, this did not relieve the locals of very burdensome responsibilities towards the Roman administration. Eventually, after the final approval of Octavian's authority, the city was transformed into a Roman colony (about 21 BC), which was in line with his policy of distributing land to veterans ^{[17, p.164]}. Colonization contributed to the strengthening of the Roman cultural and social identity of Tyndaris. The veterans and their families brought with them Roman customs, traditions and lifestyle, which deepened the integration of the city into the life of the Roman Empire. Veterans began to play an important role in management, occupying administrative posts and ensuring the commitment of citizens to new laws and regulations ^{[24, pp. 298-302]}. This led to the gradual Romanization of the local population and a change in the social structure of Tyndaris, contributing to the strengthening of its ties with the central government and deeper integration into the economic and cultural life of the Roman Empire. ^{[11, c.131]}

The institutional and legal status of Tyndaris, like other Sicilian cities between the dictatorship of Caesar and the principate of Augustus, remains unclear due to a lack of information. According to Cicero, the cities of Sicily were supposed to receive Latin law (ius Latii) from Caesar around 46 BC, and Roman citizenship from Anthony, although the legality of this innovation in Sicily remains a matter of debate ^{[4, p.119]}. In the absence of accurate historical information, researchers turn to epigraphic and numismatic materials to determine the status of each city. The presence of municipalities in the Caesar era and later is evidenced by coins with the names of duumvirs, especially on the northern coast of the island ^{[4, p.119]}. It remains controversial whether Caesar should be credited with replacing decimae frumentariae with stipendium ^{[13, p.33]}. After the conflict with Pompey ended, Octavian introduced compensation for the cities, which was probably related to scholarship debts or represented a new financial mechanism. According to Manganaro's assumption, the status of ius Latii was confirmed for most cities ^{[9, p. 451]}.

Strabo, one of our main sources on the Sicilian cities between 36 and 12 BC, notes the state of desolation and oliganthropy — a sharp decline in population — in many areas of the island (Strabo. VI. II. 6). He reports that such conditions allowed the Romans to acquire mountains and plains, transferring them shepherds, among whom appeared such personalities as Seleuros, the son of Etna, who raised robber and slave revolts, similar to the rebellion of Eunus. It is noteworthy that Strabo classifies the five cities of the northern coast as polychnia (small towns) or polismata (small centers), reflecting the crisis, although not as acute as on the southern coast.

Strabo's description of Sicily in the sixth book of Geography is based on various sources: information from Ephorus, Hecateus, and Posidonius; naturalistic observations from Polybius and Posidonius; geographical information and specific distance data from Ephorus, Artemidorus, Polybius, and Corographus. Some scientists believe that this horography was an official document, and associate it with the cartographic work of Agrippa at the time of Augustus ^{[4, p. 120]}. Others believe that it was a nautical chart or a navigation that Strabo referred to in the complete absence or inconsistency of sources. Strabo notes (VI. II. 1-3) that distances in Roman miles were determined by sequentially measuring areas along the coast, rather than by straight lines, which corresponds to the materials of the initial exploration after the victory over Pompey and the desire to collect demographic and political information.

Between 22 and 21 BC, during Augustus' visit to Sicily, an institutional reorganization of the cities was carried out, within which colonies of veterans were founded. Augustus mentions this in his "Acts" (Res Gestae Divi Augusti. 28. 1). Tyndaris became one of these colonies as a result of the transformation from a Latin municipality.

Of particular interest is the role of Tyndaris as a key transport interchange connecting Lilybaeum and Messana. Augustus probably sought to make this city a strategic stronghold on the route to the Aeolian Islands, Campania and Rome. However, the implementation of this project could have been interrupted by a catastrophe, which Pliny the Elder mentions, but Strabo ignores. According to Pliny, this catastrophe destroyed half of Tyndaris.

Strabo notes that the distance from Tyndaris to Mila is twenty—five miles, and to Agathyrna is thirty miles; he classifies both of these settlements as polychnios. M. Fasolo draws attention to the numerous discrepancies in Strabo's distance calculations, which probably appeared due to errors in the correspondence of manuscripts. For example, in some codes, the distance between Tyndaris and Agathyrn is indicated as "fifty" miles instead of "thirty" [4. pp.121-122].

As for the disaster mentioned by Pliny the Elder, scientists associate it with a landslide in the northeastern part of the cape, where the city was located. However, archaeological studies do not confirm the fact of significant destruction in this area. Perhaps the consequences of the disaster affected neighboring areas such as Monte di Giove or the coast where the Marinello Lakes are currently located.

The history of Tyndaris is a vivid example of the transformation of an ancient city that went from a strategic outpost of the Greek world to an integral part of the Roman Empire. Due to its geographical location and economic potential, Tyndaris has played an important role in the politics and economy of the Mediterranean for many centuries.

During the Hellenistic era, the city became an important naval port, and after being incorporated into the province of Sicily, it became an important link in the Roman government system. The transformation of Tyndaris into a Roman colony during the time of Augustus underlined its strategic value and completed the process of integration into the empire. Archaeological finds, excavated mints, elite residences and fortifications confirm the high level of socio-economic development of the city.

The civil wars and the associated destruction have not been able to negate the significance of Tyndaris. On the contrary, all these events have become a catalyst for changes in its existence, allowing urban structures to adapt to new political and cultural realities. Research confirms that the city became a regional center of Romanization, where the local elite successfully integrated into the Roman administrative and social system.

Thus, Tyndaris remains an important object of study for antiquarians. Its history demonstrates how local communities interacted with imperial structures, adapting their traditions and architecture to new historical conditions.