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Arctic and Antarctica
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Vasil'chuk, Y.K. (2025). Concentration of the main soluble ions in the composite wedges of the Upper Sand unit of the Batagay megaslump. Arctic and Antarctica, 1, 16–43. https://doi.org/10.7256/2453-8922.2025.1.73228
Concentration of the main soluble ions in the composite wedges of the Upper Sand unit of the Batagay megaslump
DOI: 10.7256/2453-8922.2025.1.73228EDN: QBFPIYReceived: 02-02-2025Published: 20-03-2025Abstract: Syngenetic composite wedges CW-10, CW-11, CW-12, CW-13, CW-14, and CW-15 were discovered in the Upper Sand unit of the Batagay megaslump, located 10 kilometers southeast of Batagay settlement. The goal of this work is to investigate the composition of ions in composite wedges in order to determine their formation characteristics. The ion composition of composite sand-ice wedges 10–15 from the upper sand is dominated by sulfate anions; their content reaches 372 mg/L. The content of chlorides is high – up to 94 mg /L, the ratio of chloride anions to sulfates reaches 2.7. Among the cations, calcium stands out—up to 172 mg/L and sodium up to 117 mg/L. The content of magnesium cations is up to 115 mg/L. The measurements were performed using a Stayer ion chromatograph. The average EC values in sand-ice wedges are: No. 10 – 407 mSm, No. 11 – 742 mSm, No. 12 – 583 mSm, No. 14 – 783 mSm, and No. 15 – 696 mSm. The average sodium cation content in composite wedges is: No. 10 – 22 mg/L, No. 11 – 63 mg/L, No. 12 – 28 mg/L, No. 14 – 57 mg/L, No. 15 – 35 mg/L. Average values of calcium cation content in sand-ice wedges: No. 10 – 0.42 mg/L, No. 11 – 89 mg/L, No. 12 – 63 mg/L, No. 14 – 92 mg/L, No. 15 – 98 mg/L. Average values of chloride anion content in sand-ice wedges: No. 10 – 23 mg/L, No. 11 – 48 mg/L, No. 12 – 41 mg/L, No. 14 – 51 mg/L, No. 15 – 35 mg/L. Average values of sulfate anion content in sand-ice wedges: No. 10 – 27 mg/L, No. 11 – 104 mg/L, No. 12 – 105 mg/L, No. 14 – 128 mg/L, No. 15 – 64 mg/L. Using the ionic composition of composite wedges as a geochemical tracer to study the problem of the genesis and formation processes of composite wedges allows us to obtain additional evidence of the nature of sand-ice wedges and the conditions of their formation. The chemical composition of wedges located in the Upper Sand unit was influenced by continental aerosols and slope suprapermafrost waters. The most significant difference in the ionic composition of composite wedges from the simultaneously accumulating ice wedges of the Batagay yedoma is the predominance of sulfate anions; their content (up to 372 mg/L) is one and even two orders of magnitude higher than in the ice of most yedoma wedges. In general, the ionic composition of composite sand-ice wedges differs significantly from the ionic composition of the Batagay yedoma ice wedges. Composite sand-ice wedges were formed with the active participation of slope processes and slope suprapermafrost waters. Keywords: permafrost, composite wedge, Late Pleistocene, macroelements, cryogeochemistry, mineralization, cations and anions, Upper sand unit, Batagay crater, northern YakutiaThis article is automatically translated. You can find original text of the article here. Introduction
J. Ross McKie and J. Mathews[32] described buried ice and sand wedges that may be older than early Wisconsin. They assumed that the winter and summer climates were the same as they are now, or even a little warmer. The preservation of ice here shows that permafrost rocks have been present on Hooper Island since at least early Wisconsin. On the islands of Summer and Hadven, the western part of Arctic Canada, J. Merton[33] found sand veins and composite sand-ice wedges, which usually have a simple V-shape. However, not all wedges have a V-shape; some of them have an irregular shape with branching sand veins. Vertical or steeply sloping layering is not evident in all wedges; some appear to have massive filling, suggesting that the sand source may be very uniform. The composite sand-ice wedges at Crumbling Point, Summer Island, began to grow as complex composite wedges, and continued as sand wedges, then they were modified by thermokarst and, in some cases, later resumed their growth as ice wedges.[33] In the area of the village So that's it, in the west Syngenetic and antisyngenetic sandy and complex composite wedges were studied in Arctic Canada by J. Merton and M. Bateman[34]. Studies performed by A.Y.Derevyagin and co-authors [15] have shown that in the coastal zone and on the islands of the Laptev Sea, permafrost sand deposits often contain polygonal vein structures with sand-ice filler – sand-ice veins. The width of the sand-ice veins reaches 4-5 m (perhaps they are not completely frontal). The sediments containing the sand and ice veins are more than 50 thousand years old. The multi-tiered arrangement of sand-ice veins in sections, frequent transitions within the same polygonal vein system from sand-ice to ice veins indicate, according to A.Y.Derevyagin's conclusion, multiple changes in the hydrological regime of a shallow, periodically draining freshwater basin and the facies conditions of sedimentation of sandy sediments. The sand layer with sand and ice veins in the area of Cape Mammoth Fang is overlain by edom deposits, which are 30-35 thousand years old.[15] Y. V. Tikhonravova and co-authors[23] noted that the ice in the frozen Sartan and sediments of the second Lacustrine-alluvial terrace and Holocene Khasyreys in the lower reaches of the Gyda River consists of ice and ice-bearing parts. The ice sections of the veins are composed of elementary veins of ice, formed due to the prevailing processes of frost-breaking cracking and recrystallized to varying degrees depending on their age. The ice-ground inclusions in the veins are composed of vertical and wavy veins of ice and ground veins.[23] The inclusions of the ice ground are confined to different parts of the ice veins – the upper and lower, lateral and central sections, which indicates different times of their formation. The ice veins of the first and second generations in the Sartan deposits of the remnants of the second terrace are characterized by signs of primary crystallization: a clear, even vertically striped texture formed by axial seams of elementary veins, sometimes accentuated by films of turbidity and air bubbles trapped between the crystals. Signs of primary crystallization indicate that the process of frost cracking was the main one in the formation of ice veins. According to Y.V. Tikhonravova, the formation of ice-ground inclusions is associated with local thawing, filling of cavities and slow two-way freezing of water-saturated soil in the cavities in the vein at different stages of its growth.[23] There are relatively few data from analytical studies of complex composite sand-ice veins. At the same time, if there are few isotopic studies of composite veins,[15;25,26;35,36;38] there is practically no hydrochemical work at all. At the same time, studies of the ionic composition of ice veins in the Russian [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,12,13,14,16,17,20,21,22] and English-language [24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,37,38,39,40,41,42] literature number in the dozens. V.I.Butakov's dissertation [3, pp. 48-49] contains hydrochemical characteristics of ice-ground inclusions in veins near the village. Gyda. He notes that the ice-bearing parts of the veins of the remnants of the terrace vary in composition. The ice core of one of the veins is bicarbonate, calcium–magnesium-sodium, fresh (164 mg/dm3). The ice-ground part of the other vein is characterized by a chloride-bicarbonate calcium-magnesium; fresh (94 mg/dm3) composition. The increased mineralization, turbidity, humus, and iron content in the ice base, compared with the "pure" ice of the veins, are probably associated with waters enriched in mineral particles and water-soluble compounds. The third ice vein with mineral veins of sandy loam and fine sand is ultra-fresh (44 mg/dm3) and has a bicarbonate, sodium-calcium-magnesium composition.[3] The purpose of this work is to study the composition of ions in complex composite sand-ice veins located in the upper sand of the Batagai crater in order to determine the features of the formation of composite veins.
Objects and methods Batagai ravine The author has studied syngenetic composite sand-ice veins located in the upper sand of the Batagai ravine, which was formed relatively recently 10 km south-east of the village. Batagai, in Verkhoyansky ulus, Republic of Yakutia (Sakha) (fig. 1, 2).
Fig. 1. Diagram of the distribution of sections of composite sand-ice veins in the upper sand pack located in the northern part of the Batagai crater: sand-ice vein 10, (67.583444° north, 134.764556° east), C sand-ice vein 11 (67.58346° south, 134.76424° east), sand-ice vein 12 (67.58347°N, 134.76402° e), sand-ice vein 13 (67.58347°N, 134.76456°e), sand-ice vein 14 (67.58150°N, 134.76227°e) and sand-ice vein 15 (67.58150° north, 134.76227° east)
Fig. 2. Location of sections of composite sand-ice veins in the upper sand pack of the Batagai section: sand-ice veins No.10-15. The original photo by K. Orlinsky Brief physical and geographical characteristics of the area The climate, according to the Batagai weather station, is close to moderately cold. The average annual air temperature is -14.8 °C. The coldest month is January with temperatures ranging from -43 to -51 °C.[10] Permafrost rocks in the basin of the The Yans have a continuous distribution. The active layer reaches a thickness of only 0.2-0.4 m under forest and moss, and 0.4-1.2 m in open areas. Permafrost rocks are usually highly glaciated. Vegetation of the North taiga and forest-tundra type. Deciduous woodlands dominate. The species composition is represented by Kayander larch, birch, dwarf birch, alder, cedar elderberry, rosemary, Toll's foot, loose sedge, Siberian spruce, lingonberry, blueberry, moss-lichen complexes. The structure of the soil cover is represented by typical soils of boreal and forest-tundra zones. The soil-forming rocks of the Batagai ravine area are mainly deluvial-solifluction deposits of sandy loam-light loam granulometric composition, underlain by siltstones, mudstones and sandstones of Triassic age.[10] The depth of the seasonally thawed soil layer depends on their granulometric composition: the lighter it is, the greater the capacity of the seasonal melt layer. Permafrost rocks are represented by slightly silty fused deposits, most often having a sandy loam-light loam composition, containing a large amount of moisture and few different inclusions, and having a color, as a rule, darker than the overlying horizons. The soil profiles were classified[10] as petrozems and psammozems (department of underdeveloped soils), according to the presence of a litter-peat and coarse humus horizon in the soil profile, respectively. The thickness of these soils did not exceed 10 cm, abruptly turning at this depth into coarse–grained material with a small amount of fine earth, probably deluvia of bedrock. In the saddle, on a gentle slope to the Batagai ravine, the soil profile of the illuvial-ferruginous permafrost substructure is revealed. A number of sections are represented by light–earths of different profile thickness, for which the presence of a cryometamorphization horizon (CRM) is a diagnostic feature. The background soils in the Batagai ravine area are light soils found in a variety of landscape conditions, the island distribution in the area has sub-contours, and underdeveloped soils are associated with relief increases with bedrock close to the surface. The main processes characteristic of soils in the Batagai ravine area are: litter formation, coarse humus-accumulative process, alpha humus process, gluing and cryogenic structuring.[10] Syngenetic composite sand-ice veins are located in the northern part of the Batagai ravine in the thickness of the upper sand, which facially replaces edom deposits (Fig. 3, 4)
Fig. 3. Composite sand-ice veins in the upper sand of the Batagai section facially replacing edom deposits, 2017
Fig. 4. The northern edge of the upper sand layer of the Batagai section, 2019 Sampling and sample preparation Ice samples from composite sand-ice veins exposed by the Batagai ravine outcrop (Fig. 5-7) were taken on August 10-14, 2019.
Fig. 5. Sampling scheme of composite sand-ice veins from the upper sand of the Batagai section. Sand-ice vein 10 (IW-10-VV), sand-ice vein 11 (IW-11-VV) and sand-ice vein 13 (IW-13-VV), 2019
Fig. 6. Sampling scheme from composite sand-ice vein 12 (IW-12-VV) from the upper sand of the Batagai section, 2019
Fig. 7. Sampling scheme from composite sand and ice veins in the lower part of the upper sand of the Batagai section. Sand-ice vein 14 (IW-10-VV) and sand-ice vein 15 (IW-11-VV), 2019 Ice samples were taken from composite sand-ice veins vertically every 10-20 cm (Fig. 8) using Makita DDF481rte 18B and Bosch GSR 36 VE-2-LI drills with steel ice crowns with a diameter of 51 mm. To clean the sampling site, a near-surface layer with a thickness of 2-3 cm was removed from the surface of composite sand-ice veins using a drill and further deeper samples were taken from the same well. A sample consisting of sand and ice with a diameter of 5 cm was drilled from sand-ice veins, with the mass of each sample being about 150 g, and packed in plastic bags. The coordinates of the sand and ice veins were recorded using GPS.
Rice. 8. Sampling from composite sand-ice vein 11 (CW-11-VV) from the upper sand of the Batagai section, 2019 The ice was melted in bags at a temperature of +20 ° C. The pH and EC meters were used to measure the acidity and electrical conductivity of the meltwater. The technical characteristics of the HANNA pHep 4 HI98127 pH meter are as follows: the pH range is from 0.0-14.0; the measurement accuracy is up to 0.1 pH units; the measurement error is 0.1 pH units. The technical characteristics of the HANNA HI 98311 EC meter are as follows: the range of electrical conductivity is from 0.0 to 3999.0 µS/cm; the measurement accuracy is up to 0.1 µS/cm, the EC-TDS conversion coefficient is 0.45. Then the meltwater was poured into plastic bottles with a capacity of 10 ml with a tightly closed lid. Characteristics of sand-ice veins exposed by the exposure of the Batagai ravine The sand-ice vein 10 is composed of grayish-brown ice with thin veins of soil (Fig. 9) and air bubbles. Composite core 10 has a width of 10 to 30 cm and a height of about 1.4 m. Its head lies at a depth of just over 2 m. In this vein, 3 pairs of slightly pronounced "hangers" can be distinguished.
Fig. 9. Sample from composite sand-ice vein 10 (model 13) Sand-ice vein 11 has a width of 15 to 30 cm (Fig. 10, 11), a height of more than 7 m, it is composed of cloudy gray-brown ice. The alternation of vertically oriented thin and thick (more than 1 mm thick) ice veins grouped into 3 pieces is noted. There are 3 pairs of "hangers" in it.
10. Relative position and parameters of composite sand-ice veins 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 in the upper sand layer. Field sketch: 1 – the upper sand layer; 2 – the upper part of the overlapping edom layer; 3 – composite sand and ice veins
Fig. 11. Sand-ice vein 11 (next to it is a ladder), the thickness of the upper sand Sand-ice vein 12 has a width of 15 to 53 cm (see Figs. 10, 12), a height of more than 12.5 m, it is composed of ice, mainly grayish-brown and brownish-yellow ice. There are 5 pairs of "hangers" in vein 12. Sand-ice vein 13 has a width of 10 to 21 cm and a height of about 5.8 m. (See Fig. 5, 10), it is composed of cloudy ice. brownish-yellow in color, with vertically oriented veins of grayish-brown soil, ground veins from 2 to 5 mm wide. In vein 13, 3 pairs of slightly pronounced "hangers" can be distinguished. The sand-ice vein 14 in the lower part of the upper sand pack has a width of up to 0.7 m, a height of the wide part of about 3.6 m (see Fig. 7, 10), and up by about 2 m it sharply thinns and its head in the form of a sharp peak ends in the sand at a depth of more than 44 m. The upper part of the edom layer with a thickness of more than 35 m lies above residential 14.
12. Sample No. 58 from composite sand-ice vein 11, which lies in the upper sand of the Batagai section.
Fig. 13. Sand-ice vein 12, the thickness of the upper sand of the Batagai section
Fig. 14. Samples from composite sand-ice vein 12 from the upper sand layer of the Batagai section: a – model 40; b – model 41; c – model 43; d – model 44
Fig. 15. Samples from composite sand-ice vein 12, lying in the thickness of the upper sand of the Batagai section: a – model 71; b – model 75
The sand-ice vein 15 in the lower part of the upper sand pack has a width of up to 0.2 m and a height of about 2.5 m (see Figs. 7, 10). It lies in the lowest part of the upper sand pack. The upper part of the edom layer with a thickness of more than 35 m lies above the residential area.
Fig. 16. Samples from composite sand-ice veins of the upper sand of the Batagai section: a – from sand-ice vein 14, model 76; b – from sand-ice vein 15, model 86 Laboratory analysis and data analysis Laboratory methods Measurements of the macrocomponent ice composition of composite sand-ice veins in 52 samples were carried out using a Steyer ion chromatograph (Russia), the detection limit for chloride ion is 0.02 mg/l. The Steyer ion chromatograph is designed for qualitative and quantitative determinations of inorganic compounds F-, Cl-, NO 3-, NO 2-, SO 4 2-, PO 4 3-, Na+. NH4+, K+,Mg2+, and Ca2+ in aqueous solutions of various origins (natural, industrial, and potable). For samples from composite sand-ice veins, the method of measuring the mass concentration of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, NH4+ cations in samples of drinking water, mineral, natural and waste water by ion chromatography FR.1.31.2005.01738 was used. The range of detectable concentrations is 0.10-20.00 mg/dm3, and for the determination of anions, the method of measuring the mass concentration of Cl–, SO4 2-, NO 3- in samples of drinking water, mineral, natural and wastewater by ion chromatography FR.1.31.2005.01724 was used, the range of detectable concentrations from 0.10 up to 20.00 mg/dm3, the method of measuring the mass concentration of ions in samples of natural, drinking and waste water by ion chromatography HDPE F 14.1:2:4. 132-98. The range of determined concentrations for cations is 0.10-150.00 mg/dm3.
Results Ionic composition of composite sand-ice veins and macronutrient content The ionic composition of composite sand-ice veins discovered in the Batagai Circus in 52 samples from sand-ice veins 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 has been studied. The ionic composition of the composite sand-ice vein 10 from the upper sand is marked (see Table 1) by the predominance of sulfate anions (SO 4 2-), the content of which reaches 130 mg/l, calcium (Ca 2+) – 105 mg/l predominates among the cations. In the upper part of the vein, the content of chlorides (Cl-) is high – from 34 to 66 mg/l, which leads to the highest ratio of Cl- to SO4 2- anions to 2.7 among the composite veins of this section (see Table 2). Table 1. Ionic composition of Late Pleistocene composite sand-ice veins of the upper sand of the Batagai section (52 samples)
Table 2. Minimum, average, and maximum values of ion content in composite sand-ice veins of the upper sand of the Batagai section
In the ionic composition of the composite sand-ice vein 11 from the upper sand, the highest number of sulfate anions (SO4 2-) up to 372 mg/l was recorded among the composite veins of the upper sand (see Table. 1) and even their average value exceeds 100 mg/l. Among the cations, calcium (Ca2+) is allocated - up to 148 mg/l and sodium (Na+) - up to 117 mg/l. The ratio of chlorides to sulfates (Cl-/SO4 2-) does not exceed 2, averaging 0.64 (see Table 2). In the ionic composition of the composite sand-ice vein 12, a noticeable presence of calcium (Ca2+) cations was isolated from the upper sand – up to 112 mg/l (see Table. 1), sulfate anions (SO4 2-) up to 196 mg/l and chlorides up to 74 mg/l. The ratio of chlorides to sulfates (Cl-/SO4 2-) is relatively low: on average 0.45 and does not exceed 0.75 (see Table 2). The ionic composition of the composite sand-ice vein 13 from the upper sand contains a high content of sulfate anions (SO4 2-) up to 210 mg/l (see Table. 1), low chloride content of 37 mg/l. This also determines the low ratio of chlorides to sulfates (Cl-/SO4 2-) – 0.18 (see Table 2). Calcium (Ca2+) 117 mg/l predominates among the cations. The ionic composition of the composite sand-ice vein 14 from the upper sand contains a fairly high content of sulfate anions (SO4 2-) up to 286 mg/l (see Table. 1) and chlorides – up to 69 mg/l, while their average values are 128 and 51 mg/l, respectively. The ratio of chlorides to sulfates (Cl-/SO 4 2-) is also high and averages 0.44 (see Table 2). This vein has the highest nitrate content (NO 3-), up to 140 mg/l. Among the cations, calcium (Ca2+) prevails – on average 92 mg/l and magnesium (Mg2+) – on average 58 mg/l, and the presence of sodium (Na+) is noticeable – on average 57 mg/l. The ionic composition of the composite sand-ice vein 15 from the upper sand showed a stable content of sulfate anions (SO4 2-) from 62 to 64 mg/l, and a relatively high content of nitrates (NO 3-) from 46 to 56 mg/l (see Table 1). Discussion K omposite sand-ice veins Composite sand-ice veins were found by the author in the uppermost part of the Ust-Algansky section, which is located on the left bank of the Main River, 6 km below the mouth of the Algan River, 7 km upstream of the Ice Cliff.[9] Its height at the time of description was about 60 m. The Ust-Algan formation is mainly represented by fine horizontally layered sands, yellowish-gray and gray. In the depth range of 20-23 m (at an altitude of 37-40 m from the river's edge), 49-53 m (at an altitude of 7-11 m from the river's edge) and 55.3-55.7 m (at an altitude of 4.7-4.3 m from the river's edge), frequent interlayers of allochthonous peat with a thickness of 0.5 to 2 cm are noted. The two lower detached layers also contain a large number of shrub branches and occasionally tree trunks. 7 cyclites have been traced in the section - at the bottom there are 5 tiers of narrow re-vein ice, and at the top there are two tiers of sandy (m.b. sandy-ice?) 17), their width rarely exceeds 1 m, height is 7-8 m, the distance between the veins is from 3 to 4 m.
17. Cyclical structure of the cryolithological section of the Late Pleistocene sand complex in the valley of the Main River, in the Ust-Algansky outcrop. According to [9]: 1 – peat; 2 – sand; 3 – sandy (sandy-icy?) veins; 4 – re-vein ice; 5 – Δ18o values in ice veins, q; 6 – wood remains; 7 – sampling for radiocarbon determinations
Apparently, during the initial period of formation of the Ust-Algan strata, riverbed processes actively participated in its formation, which led to the accumulation of powerful lenses and interlayers of allochthonous organic material. The inversion of radiocarbon dates also indicates an allochthonous origin. At a height of 5 m above the cut, the authors obtained a date of 32700 ± 1800 years (GIN-5367) from well–preserved branches and wood, and at a height of 7 m, a more ancient date of 42400 ± 2100 years (GIN-5366). Earlier, a date of 43 thousand years ago was obtained at the base of the branch section, and more than 57 thousand years ago above it.[7] The inversion is caused by the introduction of organic matter from older strata eroded upstream of the river. The younger dating can be taken as the lower limit of the accumulation of the stratum, and then, taking into account the large thickness of the stratum, it must be admitted that at certain stages sedimentation occurred very quickly and the sedimentation rate reached 5 m per thousand years. Composite sand-ice veins were described by T.N. Kaplina and A.V. Sher[18] in the section of the Sypnaya Yar. Here, a predominantly sandy stratum of alluvial sediments with a thickness of about 50 m is exposed over a large area. The thickness of the Rashny Yar is generally characterized by the absence of large accumulations of bones of various animals. This circumstance reflects the constrictive type of accumulation of the stratum, the absence of intensive sedimentation, which usually leads to a secondary concentration of bone remains. T.N. Kaplina emphasizes that the presence of two tiers of ice veins, and at least one tier of pseudomorphoses in the lower pack of sediments with woody remains allows us to confidently say that the formation processes are polygonalThe formation of vein ice occurred not only after the completion, but also during the accumulation of the sandy strata of the Sedimentary Yar. Moreover, despite the fact that the ice veins were buried under the sands and experienced at least temporary flooding, they did not survive. Ice veins in sandy loam bundles have different sizes, and there is a relationship between both vertical and horizontal dimensions and the thickness of the bundles. The most powerful ice veins were found at an altitude of 14-18 m above the river, where the veins were 2.5 m wide at the top. The polygons average 7-9 m in size, but it should be noted that mesh thickenings of up to 3-4 m are common, although in these cases the veins themselves are smaller. Of particular interest, according to T.N. Kaplina and A.V. Sher[18], is the relationship between sandy loam and loamy sediments, sands, and ice veins. When the channel sands are abruptly changed from bottom to top along the section (when overlapping) with sandy loams (light loams), the upper surface of the ice veins usually has an even horizontal section. When the sandy loam-loam composition gradually changes to sandy, or through the interbedding of silted and fine-grained sands, small sprouts often remain in ice veins, sometimes several nested layers of ice veins can be seen in sections, which indicates the dynamism and variability of their growth conditions, probably a fairly rapid accumulation of overlapping bundles of alluvium. The veins studied had a high degree of soil contamination – they contain many vertical stripes consisting of fine sand or dust. Along with the ice, small ice–ground veins were found in the sections - up to 0.3 m wide and 1.5 m vertically long. Such veins are found in silted sands, but they are often confined to fine-grained sands, i.e. they grew in the lower part of the coastal shoal. They are particularly notable for their often rebuilt grilles. Such systems are generally synchronous with the host precipitation. At one time, Lavrushin outlined two types of sections of the constrictive alluvium, in which the placement of ice veins can be tiered. In the first case, the layering is due to a clear change in lithology, in the second – to climatic fluctuations. T.N. Kaplina concludes that the Sandstone pit is an example of the first type of strata.[18] J. Merton and M. Bateman[34] studied three isolated, sand-filled, tube-shaped vein structures within the sandy strata of the Kittigazuite formation, with a thickness of at least 10 m, in the southwest of Summer Island and adjacent Richards Island. Late Pleistocene sandy strata in coastal areas near the village Taktoyaktak, western Arctic Canada, contains syngenetic sand veins 1-21 cm wide, sometimes reaching more than 9 m in height. Their high and narrow, tube-like morphology differs from the known syngenetic ice wedges and indicates an unusually close balance between the rate of accumulation of sand and the frequency of cracking during thermal compression.[34] Under the Holocene sand layer near Johnson Bay, sand wedges with unusually wide peaks (about 3.9 m wide) extend downward from the protruding erosion surface. The sand wedges grew vertically downward during the deflation of the earth's surface and represent antisingenetic wedges.[34] The tube-like shape characterizes the more or less uniform width of structures with depth; since they lack the downward taper usually characteristic of wedges. The sides of the sand veins contained from one to seven horizontal "shoulders", above which the vein sharply narrowed, usually by several centimeters. The height of one of the veins exceeded 9 m. Inside, the veins were filled with fine sand and silty fine sand, similar to the overlapping sandy and silty sandy facies of the host sand layer. The filling of the veins contained random granules down to small pebbles.[34] It should be noted that the Aeolian genesis of sands with composite sand-ice veins seems very unrealistic to the author. In this regard, we can recall the cryogenic structure of such characteristic Aeolian forms as tukulans. Small sand veins can often be found in the sandy thickness of the tukulans, but extended sand-ice veins have not yet been found. If the ice veins are marked in the thickness of the tukulans, they are confined to lake-marsh facies, such as the ice veins found in the section of the Kysyl-Syrsky Tukulan, under a powerful autochthonous peat bog that formed 10-3.5 thousand years ago.[19, p.17] A.Y.Derevyagin et al.[15] presented data on the distribution, cryogenic structure, and isotopic composition of composite sand-ice veins in Pleistocene sand deposits (more than 50 thousand years old) on the coast and islands of the Laptev Sea. Thick strata of sands underlie the deposits of the Upper Pleistocene ice complex and contain several tiers of composite sand-ice veins. The studied sections describe transitions from composite sand-ice veins to re-vein ice and contact zones of sand-ice veins with overlying re-vein ice of the ice complex. Ancient polygonal vein systems developed in the deposits of Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island are characterized by the lightest isotopic composition (average values of Δ18o from -34.3 to -36.0 % and values of Δ2H from -258.2 to -280.8%). Sand-ice veins in the Upper Pleistocene sands of Cape Mammoth Fang (Anabaro–Olenek interfluve) have a heavier isotopic composition (average values of Δ18O from -28.5 to -31.7% and values of Δ2H from -222.4 to -245.4%). The isotopic composition of the sand-ice veins indicates the cold and dry climatic conditions of their formation period. A comparative analysis of the isotopic composition of the studied composite sand-ice veins and re-vein ice shows their similarity. The data cited by A.Y.Derevyagin[15] indicate a wide distribution of sand deposits with composite sand-ice veins in sections of Quaternary sediments in the far north of Yakutia. The features of the cryogenic structure of sediments, including composite sand-ice veins, indicate, according to A.Y.Derevyagin[15], the subaerial conditions of their formation. He emphasizes that in many cases composite sand-ice veins form a single polygonal system with re-vein ice. Transitions from composite sand-ice veins to re-vein ice are observed in both the horizontal and vertical profiles of a single vein. The transition from the sandy stratum to the sediments of the ice complex is accompanied by an increase in the content of dusty particles, organic inclusions, interlayers and lenses of peat, which are about 40-46 thousand years old. The powerful syngenetic ice veins of the ice complex are embedded into the underlying sandy strata to a depth of 5-6 m, often splitting composite sand-ice veins. The isotopic composition of composite sand-ice veins is very close to the isotopic composition of the ice veins of the ice complex, which indicates the genetic similarity of their food sources. A.Y.Derevyagin notes that the formation of composite sand-ice veins occurs in some areas of the Lena Delta and Bunge Land at the present time.[15] Modern sand veins are actively formed in seasonally frozen soils within the zone of intermittent permafrost distribution on the western shore of Bolshoy Slavnichy Lake (62.4302 ° N; 115.2960° W), in the Northwestern territory of Canada, where the subarctic continental climate prevails with precipitation of 291 mm per year, average annual air temperature -4.1 °C, warm summer (average July temperature = 17.0 °C) and cold winter (average January temperature = -26.6 °C). Five years of direct field observations carried out by S. Wolf and co-authors[45] show that interannual changes in the thermal regime of the soil are mainly determined by winter air temperature and the state of the snow cover. In sandy areas, thin snow cover and high thermal conductivity contribute to rapid freezing, high soil cooling rates and low temperatures at the soil surface (from -15 to -25 °C), which leads to the formation of thermal compression cracks penetrating to a depth of 1.2 m. Temperature compression cracking occurs at low moisture content (<4%). The potential for cracking is high in sandy soils when the air temperature is <-30°C, and the thickness of the snow cover <0.15 m . On the contrary, the surface conditions in peat bogs support permafrost, but cracking under thermal compression does not occur, since thicker snow cover and thermal properties of peat support higher winter soil temperatures. Temperature-compressed cracks that develop in sandy soils are filled with surface (allochthonous) and/or host (autochthonous) material during the thawing season. Epigenetic sand wedges filled with allochthonous sand develop in former beach sediments under an active Aeolian sand cover. Narrower and deeper syngenetic wedges are formed within the agrading Aeolian sand strata, while wider and shallower antisyngenetic wedges were formed in areas of active erosion.[45]
Ion content in composite sand-ice veins
The use of the ionic composition of composite sand-ice veins as a geochemical tracer to study the problem of the genesis and formation processes of composite veins allows us to obtain additional evidence of the nature of sand-ice veins and the conditions of their formation. According to AMS dating of organic material extracted directly from sand-ice veins, the accumulation of composite wedges in a pack of Upper Sand of the Batagai stratum began no later than 38 thousand cal. years ago and ended no earlier than 23.5 thousand cal. years ago.[43,44] At about the same time, veins 17 and 20 were forming in the edom part of this section. It is interesting to compare the ionic composition of these almost synchronous facies differences. In PPL-5 of the Batagai edoma, the sulfate content varies from 2 to 17 mg/l, averaging 6.35 mg/l, in PPL-7 of the Batagai edoma, the sulfate content varies from 1.4 to 40.5 mg/l, averaging 5.79 mg/l.[7] The average concentration of sulfate anions in the IW-17 ice vein is 4.15 mg/l,[6] the maximum is 30.47 mg/l and the minimum is 1.06 mg/l. Sulfate anions predominate in the composition of composite sand-ice veins 10-15 from the upper sand (Fig. 18-21), while their content is almost 100 times higher than in the ice of most native veins of the Batagai stratum[6,7,42] and reaches 372 mg/l. The most significant difference between the ionic composition of composite sand-ice veins and the simultaneously accumulated re-vein ices of the Batagai edom formation is the predominance of sulfate anions, their content is one or even two orders of magnitude higher than in the ice of most edom veins; calcium is distinguished among the cations in the composite veins. The chemical composition of the sand-ice veins was probably influenced by continental aerosols and sloping permafrost waters. It should be assumed that the composite sand-ice veins were formed with the active participation of slope processes and inclined permafrost waters.
Fig. 18. Ionic composition of composite sand-ice vein 10 from upper sand
Fig. 19. Ionic composition of composite sand-ice vein 11 from upper sand
Fig. 20. Ionic composition of composite sand-ice vein 12 from upper sand
In PPL-5 of the Batagai edoma, the chloride content varies from 1.08 to 7 mg/l, averaging 2.6 mg/l, in PPL-7, the chloride content varies from 1.13 to 4.5 mg/l, averaging 1.96 mg/l. In IW-17 Batagai edoma, the chloride content varies from 0.9 to 34.51 mg/l, averaging 2.15 mg/l. In IW-20 Batagai edoma, the chloride content varies from 1.18 to 50.32 mg/l, averaging 1.18 mg/l. In the composition of composite sand-ice veins, chlorine anions are noticeably more representative and reach 12 in the vein (see Fig. 20) – 74 mg/l (here, on average, chlorine anions are 41 mg/l) and in vein 11 (see Fig. 19) – 94 mg/l (here, on average, chlorine anions are 48 mg/l), i.e. the chloride content in composite sand-ice veins is almost 20 times higher than in the ice veins of the Batagai edoma.
Fig. 21. Ionic composition of composite sand-ice vein 14 from upper sand
The ionic composition of the IW-17 re-core ice is dominated by sodium and calcium cations, reaching 24 and 53 mg/l in one of the samples, respectively,[6] in the same sample, chlorine anions reach 34 mg/l. In the composition of composite sand-ice veins 10-15 from the upper sand, the average content of sodium cations increases from 22 mg/l in vein 10 (see Fig. 18) to 57 mg/l in vein 14 (see Fig. 21), and even up to 63 mg/l in vein 11 (see Fig. 19). The average content of calcium cations increases from 42 mg/l in vein 10 to 98 mg/l in vein 15 and up to 92 mg/L in vein 14.
The ionic composition of composite sand-ice veins differs significantly from the ionic composition of the ice veins of the Batagai edoma: a). The EU values are on average in sand-ice veins: No. 10 – 407 msm, No. 11 – 742 msm, No. 12 – 583 msm, No. 14 – 783 msm, No. 15 – 696 msm; b). Average values of Na+ cation content in sand-ice veins: No. 10 – 22 mg/l, No. 11 – 63 mg/l, No. 12 – 28 mg/l, No. 14 – 57 mg/l, No. 15 – 35 mg/l; c). Average values of K+ cation content in sand-ice veins: No. 10 – 4 mg/l, No. 11 – 4 mg/l, No. 12 – 2 mg/l, No. 14 – 4 mg/l, No. 15 – 4 mg/l; g). Average values of Mg2+ cation content in sand-ice veins: No. 10-12 mg/l, No. 11 45 mg/l, No. 12 16 mg/l, No. 14 58 mg/l, No. 15 36 mg/l; e). Average values of Ca2+ cation content in sand-ice veins: No. 10 – 0.42 mg/l, No. 11 – 89 mg/l, No. 12 – 63 mg/l, No. 14 – 92 mg/l, No. 15 – 98 mg/l; e). Average values of F– fluorides in sand-ice veins: No. 10 – 0.26 mg/l, No. 11 – 0.71 mg/l, No. 12 – 0.26 mg/l, No. 14 – 0.54 mg/l, No. 15 – 0.28 mg/l; g. Average values of chloride anions Cl– in sand-ice veins: No. 10 – 23 mg/l, No. 11 – 48 mg/l, No. 12 – 41 mg/l, No. 14 – 51 mg/l, No. 15 – 35 mg/l; h. The average values of the NO 3 anion content in sand-ice veins: No. 10 – 4 mg/l, No. 11 – 24 mg/l, No. 12 – 7 mg/l, No. 14 – 38 mg/l, No. 15 – 51 mg/l; I. Average values of SO4 2 anion content in sand–ice veins: No. 10 - 27 mg/ll, No. 11 – 104 mg/l, No. 12 – 105 mg/l, No. 14 – 128 mg/l, No. 15 – 64 mg/l; K. Average values of the ratio of Cl–/ SO4 2– in sand-ice veins: №10 – 1,45, №11 – 0,64, №12 – 0,45, №14 – 0,44, №15 – 0,55.
Conclusions
1. The use of the ionic composition of composite sand-ice veins as a geochemical tracer to study the problem of the genesis and formation processes of composite veins allows us to obtain additional evidence of the nature of sand-ice veins and the conditions of their formation. 2. The most significant difference between the ionic composition of composite sand-ice veins and the simultaneously accumulated re-vein ices of the Batagai edom formation is the predominance of sulfate anions, their content (up to 372 mg/l) is one or even two orders of magnitude higher than in the ice of most edom veins; among the cations in the composite veins, calcium is distinguished (up to 172 mg/l). 3. The chemical composition of the sand and ice veins located in the upper sand of the Batagai crater was influenced by continental aerosols and sloping permafrost waters. 4. Composite sand-ice veins were formed with the active participation of slope processes and inclined permafrost waters.
Thanks The author is grateful to L.B. Bludushkina, N.A. Budantseva, A.P. Ginzburg, L.V. Dobryneva, E.S. Slyshkina and A.Y. Trishin for their help in field and laboratory research and in the design of the work. References
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