General theory of crime and self-control of behavior

Gomonov Nikolai Dmitrievich ORCID: 0000-0001-5773-4986 Doctor of Law Professor; Department of Jurisprudence; Murmansk Arctic University 183010, Russia, Murmansk region, Murmansk, Sportivnaya str., 13 Gomonov_Nikolay@mail.ru Other publications by this author     Trush Vladimir Mikhailovich PhD in Psychology Psychologist at the Psychological Laboratory of the Correctional Facility №16 of the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia in Murmansk region 184355, Russia, Murmansk region, pos. Murmashi, ul. Zelenaya, 14/A, Office of the Correctional Facility №16, the Psychological Laboratory  krist56@mail.ru Other publications by this author

Timohov Viktor Petrovich ORCID: 0000-0003-2306-5221 PhD in Law Professor; Department of State and Civil Law Disciplines; Ryazan Branch of the Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia named after V. Ya. Kikot 390043, Russia, Ryazan region, Ryazan, First Krasnaya str., 18 tvp1986@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

The theory of self-control by M. Gottfredson and T. Hirschi (1990) has made a great contribution to understanding the causes of crime. Our research has clearly shown that low self-control of behavior is one of the reliable predictors of a wide range of delinquent behavior ^[1]. At the same time, agreeing with the main positions of the general theory of crime, it is advisable to continue studying the determinants that determine the level and features of self-control of behavior.

To date, criminology has been dominated by the view that the level of self–control of behavior is determined by social conditions - the microsocial environment (family factors, school), living conditions, climatic factors, etc. ^{[2, c. 359-396]}. According to this position, it is environmental factors that are the determining active agents that form self-control. Indeed, empirical studies have revealed the relationship between the nature of the social continuum and the level of self-control ^{[3, pp. 327-339]}.

However, more in-depth studies have provided sufficient grounds to believe that self-control is also caused by biogenic factors ^{[4, p. 1169-1202]}. This confidence arose as a result of the emergence of works in a new field of neuroscience, providing information about the relationship between behavior control and the functioning of certain areas of the brain.

The results of recent neurocriminological studies using visualization of brain structures have shown that the processes of inhibition, self-regulation, and emotion control are very closely related to the functioning of the frontal and prefrontal cortex ^{[5, pp. 277-304]}. Neuropsychologists call the coordinated actions of these areas of the brain part of the broader functioning of its frontal lobes.

According to the general theory of criminality, the foundations of self-control of behavior are laid in the process of parenting. Parents should monitor the child, monitor the manifestations of delinquency and make adjustments to his behavior. It is assumed that even a minimal correction will allow for a high level of self-control in the future. Accordingly, parents' rejection of corrective actions on the child under the influence of "newfangled" parenting methods, when "everything is allowed", will lead to the formation of a lower level of self-control of behavior.

At the same time, it should be understood that parental control is not the only determinant of the formation of self-control, therefore, there remain "blind spots" of behavioral reactions that have no explanation from the standpoint of the theory of M. Gottfredson and T. Hirschi. Thus, recent studies have confirmed the previously stated assumption that biological factors have an equally important influence on the formation of self-control ^{[4, pp. 1169-1202]}. An analysis of twins with an assessment of environmental and genetic effects demonstrated that problems with control and self-regulation are largely the result of genetic influences ^{[6, pp. 119-123]}. The assessment of hereditary factors in the genesis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder allows us to state the presence of a clear conditionality.

Neurocriminologists point out that self-control and self-regulation have their own localization and are mainly carried out by the prefrontal cortex of the brain. The use of new research methods - functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography - allows neuropsychologists and neurocriminologists to obtain information about the work of the brain and which parts of it control certain body functions. The functions and localization of the prefrontal cortex, which are directly related to the formation of self-control, have been established. Thus, the dorsolateral region is responsible for behavioral inhibition and cognitive functions, for information processing skills and features of working memory. The frontal-orbital cortex controls emotions, supports purposeful behavior, and regulates decision-making, while the medial prefrontal cortex allows for tasks that require prolonged attention ^{[7, pp. 277-304]}.

The activity of the prefrontal cortex is attributed to higher-order cognitive processes that ensure the initialization of activities, planning processes, decision-making, and ultimately, behavior appropriate to the situation. So, back in 1990, T.E. Moffitt vividly described the normal function of the frontal lobes - concentration of attention, providing abstract thinking and forming concepts, setting goals, planning and initiating behavior, and self-monitoring behavior. As the most important function, she noted the inhibition of unsuccessful or impulsive behavior, followed by switching to alternative options ^{[8, pp. 99-169]}.

The concept of low self-control by M. Gottfredson and T. Hirschi contains the following personality characteristics: impulsivity, inability to postpone reward, preference for simple tasks, desire for risk, egocentricity, preference for physical activity over mental activity, "bad" character ^[9]. The concept of self-control focuses on the importance of regulating impulsive reactions and the ability to control emotions. The importance of mental and cognitive abilities in terms of predicting the consequences of behavior is noted. The ability to balance temperament and inhibit undesirable situational behavior is indicated. Problems with self-control lead to aggression, delinquent or aberrant behavior.

The lack of attention to the biological determinants of low self-control among the founders of the general theory of crime is explained by the traditional dominance of representatives of the sociological school of criminology, who did not accept biological and genetic explanations for criminal behavior. However, over time, there has been a tendency to take into account the psychological characteristics of the perpetrator and to recognize the potential importance of biosocial criminology. Nevertheless, within the framework of the theory of M. Gottfredson and T. Hirschi, we observe an understatement of the influence of biological and genetic factors. The authors argued that the influence of the genetic effect on the process of self-control formation is close to zero ^[9].

Neurophysiologists have outlined a different understanding of the genesis of self-regulation. Deficiencies in behavioral and emotional regulation, including low self-control, appeared to be the result of dysfunctionality of the frontal lobes of the brain, largely due to genetic factors. Thus, a connection was established between low self-control and insufficient functionality of the frontal lobe cortex ^{[10, pp. 133-176]}. In addition, this location of the cortex is responsible not only for self-control, but also for a number of other functions. As a result of the conducted research, it was proved that the levels of indicators of brain functioning determine the levels of self-control.

The work of neurophysiologists has shown that with impaired development of the prefrontal cortex, various dysfunctional disorders can occur, including decreased self-control. For example, it is known that neurotoxins (lead, tobacco, alcohol, and others) can cross the placental barrier and enter the developing fetus. These substances affect the nervous system and can disrupt brain development, causing a decrease in the metabolic activity of the brain, and subsequently irreversible structural and functional damage. This is how the organic basis for the violation of the development of self-control is formed ^{[11, p. 8]}.

The growth and development of the brain are also determined by genetic influences. An analysis of many neurobiological studies studying the genetics of brain structure has led to the conclusion that genetic influences on brain structure can be clearly traced in certain areas of the frontal and temporal lobes, including the prefrontal cortex, areas responsible for regulating self-control ^{[12, pp. 95-99]}. If the prefrontal cortex functions within the physiological norm, self-control manifests itself in the range from normal to high. In cases where abnormalities are found in the prefrontal cortex, the level of self-control is usually relatively low. To date, the research results obtained show that neuropsychological indicators are relatively constant determinants of low self-control for both men and women.

M. Gottfredson and T. Hirschi argued in the framework of the general theory of crime that self-control combined with criminal opportunity is the main cause of crime. At the same time, they believed that parents make a major contribution to the development of self-control. But they could not answer the question about the "storage location" of self-monitoring. The research results showed that most parental measures had a relatively minor and inconsistent effect on the level of self-control. Overall, neuropsychological deficits were among the most reliable predictors of its low level.

It should be noted that the presence of a link between aberrant behavior and neuropsychological dysfunctions was observed in both samples of adolescents and adults ^{[13, pp. 38-49]}. Further studies supplement this information with evidence that neuropsychological problems are predictors of self-control at an early age. Modern works link the pathologies of the structure and functioning of the brain with the presence of psychopathy and the commission of murder ^{[14, pp. 320-325; 15, pp. 1103-1108, etc.]}. In the future, it is expected to study the links of neuropsychological pathologies of other locations with the level of self-control.

There is some evidence suggesting that brain development is closely related to an increase in the intensity and decrease of criminal activity during life. Thus, when the frontal cortex enters the final development phase, the number of manifestations of delinquent behavior decreases sharply ^{[7, pp. 277-304]}. In adolescence, there is an elementary lack of experience, education, and mental resources necessary to make sound judgments and take responsible actions. At this age, emotional life acquires a brightness that the personality has not experienced before, and which the brain has not yet learned to cope with.

Opponents of the biological determinants of crime point out that the location of self-control in the frontal lobes of the brain precludes the possibility of rehabilitation of criminals. However, psychiatric practice aimed at treating, for example, depression, in addition to the therapeutic effect, clearly demonstrates the result of a decrease in the number of delinquent manifestations ^{[16, pp. 631-640]}. Studies of brain activity before and after depression treatment showed a decrease in prefrontal cortex activity, and brain blood flow returned to normal after interpersonal therapy. Changes in brain activity levels corresponded to a decrease in symptoms of depression. These results show that rehabilitation programs aimed at cognitive functioning can reduce the activity of delinquent behavior. Cognitive behavioral therapy is one of the most effective programs to reduce relapse, as it alters brain activity ^{[17, pp. 651-653]}.

Thus, the direction of future research should be related to the use of advanced neuroimaging techniques that are able to detect the most minor brain abnormalities, which will allow for a clearer understanding of the mechanisms of influence of brain functioning on behavior. Today, there is a significant body of empirical evidence suggesting links between brain dysfunction and emotional and behavioral disorders. Criminologists should carefully study the data from brain research and integrate them into theories of the causes of criminal behavior. Such an interdisciplinary approach will open up new horizons for explaining the causes of crime and will improve the effectiveness of its prevention.