The Republic of Madagascar in the context of the foreign policy interests of the Russian Federation on the African continent

Rakotomalala Harimanohy Louisette Mangatina Estera PhD in History Postgraduate student; Department of Theory and History of International Relations; P. Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University of Russia 6 Miklukho-Maklaya str., Moscow, 117198, Russia rmanohyi@gmail.com

Introduction

The relevance of the topic of this study is due firstly to the strengthening of cooperation between the Russian Federation and African states against the background of deteriorating relations between Russia and the states of Europe and North America; secondly, the change in the foreign policy of the Russian Federation since the collapse of the USSR in relation to African states; thirdly, the increased interest of leading states (China, France, Great Britain, USA) to the African continent due to a number of factors: rapid population growth in African countries, the availability of rare earth natural resources, favorable geographical location.

The object of the study is the bilateral relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar.

The subject of the study is the Republic of Madagascar in the context of the foreign policy interests of the Russian Federation on the African continent.

The purpose of the study is to determine the place of the Republic of Madagascar in the foreign policy of the Russian Federation.

Tasks in the research process: to study the history of bilateral relations between the Soviet Union and the Democratic Republic of Madagascar, to analyze the conceptual foundations of the foreign policy course of the Russian Federation in relation to the Republic of Madagascar, to characterize the change in the foreign policy course of the Russian Federation over 30 years in relation to African states, to explore the current state of bilateral cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar, to identify promising areas of bilateral cooperation between The Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar.

Theoretical and methodological basis of the study. This scientific work is based on the theory of political realism, which implies the struggle of states for their own national interests.

In the course of this research, the author used the following methods: content analysis, media metric analysis, historical and statistical methods.

The scientific novelty of this study is based on the identification of the peculiarities of the transformation of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation in relation to African states since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Moreover, the author notes the periphery of the Republic of Madagascar in the current foreign policy course of the Russian Federation in relation to African states.

The history of bilateral relations between the Soviet Union and the Republic of Madagascar

The history of bilateral relations between the States dates back to the moment Madagascar gained independence from France. The Year of Africa, which marked the end of the colonial period of Paris, became the year of independence of 17 African states, among which was the Republic of Madagascar ^[1]. Bilateral relations between the USSR and the Republic of Madagascar were established on September 29, 1972 ^[2].

The establishment and rapid development of bilateral relations between the young African Republic and the Soviet Union in the context of the latter's ideological confrontation with Western states is inextricably linked with the name of the President of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar, Didier Ratsirik. As head of the diplomatic service of Madagascar, Didier Ratsiraka made a visit to the USSR, which resulted in the establishment of diplomatic relations between the countries ^[3].

It is important to understand that the USSR's foreign policy towards Madagascar was not unique in comparison with other states of the continent: the Soviet Union provided all possible assistance in building the state system of Madagascar by supplying industrial equipment, specialists, military equipment; providing quotas for student education in the USSR. According to the Stockholm Institute for Peace Research, in the period 1978-1985, the Soviet Union transferred the following weapons to Madagascar: 8 MiG-21 fighters, 5 An-26 transport aircraft, 12 PT-76 floating tanks, 35 armored reconnaissance and patrol vehicles BRDM-2, 12 D-30 howitzers, 2 Mi-helicopters8 ^[4].

From the point of view of national interests, cooperation between the Soviet Union and African states focused on building socialism, which can include Madagascar under Didier Ratsirak, was mutually beneficial, since the Soviet Union increased its own presence in Africa, promoted socialist ideas, and prevented the advance of Western states in Africa, including former ones colonizers. At the same time, the states of Africa and Madagascar, in particular, received comprehensive assistance from the USSR (humanitarian, financial, industrial and military), support on the fields of international organizations, primarily the UN ^[5].

Thus, it can be concluded that bilateral relations between the Republic of Madagascar and the Soviet Union were based on the principle of mutually beneficial cooperation, sovereignty and friendship of peoples. The Soviet Union provided comprehensive assistance to the young Republic, which affected many areas of Madagascar's life. At the same time, the Soviet Union promoted the ideology of socialism and did not allow the expansion of the presence of Western powers in Africa.

Conceptual foundations of the foreign policy course of the Russian Federation in relation to the Republic of Madagascar

After the end of the Cold War, bilateral relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar declined due to the difficult domestic and foreign policy, economic, social and ideological situation within Russia. However, de jure, the African course of foreign policy of the Russian Federation was still maintained throughout the 1990s: the concept of foreign policy of the Russian Federation of April 23, 1993 separately highlights the African foreign policy direction. In order to determine the key principles of the formation of Russia's foreign policy in Africa at the end of the last century, it is worth referring to the content analysis of Part IX (Africa) of the foreign policy concept of the Russian Federation dated April 23, 1993.:

Content analysis of Part IX (Africa) of the Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation dated April 23, 1993

Source: the author's content analysis of Part IX (Africa) of the Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation dated April 23, 1993.

Based on the previously conducted content analysis, it can be stated with confidence that bilateral relations between the Russian Federation and the states of the African continent at the end of the 20th century were based on the principles of mutually beneficial cooperation, reliance on the UN Charter, peaceful coexistence and settlement of armed conflicts. Moreover, it is worth highlighting the most important part of this document, in the author's opinion: "In the context of de-ideologization of interstate relations and the transition from confrontation to interaction in resolving the problems of the "third world", the center of gravity of Russia's priorities in Africa is shifting to the sphere of mutually beneficial cooperation that meets the interests of our state, freed from military and political bias." This fragment sufficiently illustrates the foreign policy course of the Russian Federation at the turn of the millennium: the cessation of arms supplies, greater reliance on self-interests, and the absence of an ideological component.

With the passage of time, the development of the African vector of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation also took place. The concepts of 2000, 2008, 2013, 2016 and 2023 were adopted. The key differences in the African vector of Russia's foreign policy over 30 years will be considered by the author through a comparative analysis of 1993 and 2023.

Content analysis of Part 57 (Africa) of the Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation dated March 31, 2023

Source: the author's content analysis of Part 57 (Africa) of the Foreign policy concept of the Russian Federation dated March 31, 2023.

The data obtained during the content analysis of the concept of foreign policy of the Russian Federation in 2023 clearly show Russia's approach to African states that has changed over 30 years. The most common lexical and semantic unit in 1993 (Russia) was shifted in 2023 (Africa), words such as "assistance", "rendering [assistance]", "strengthening" and "trade" began to appear.

The conceptual changes in the foreign policy of the Russian Federation in relation to the countries of the African continent over the past 30 years consist in the transition from the "demarche" of the Soviet African foreign policy, based on the provision of gratuitous assistance to African socialist states in 1993, to strengthening cooperation based on the acceptance of African states as actors in building a new just world order, which entails assistance from the Russian Federation in establishing peace on the continent, mutually beneficial trade relations and assistance in the process of comprehensive development of the African States themselves.

It is important to note that the Republic of Madagascar does not appear as a separate direction of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation in the previously designated documents. Moreover, based on the structure of the territorial departments of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, it can also be stated with confidence that the Republic of Madagascar, relations with which are entrusted to the Department of Africa (DAF), is in no way isolated in comparison with all other states of sub-Saharan Africa ^[6][7].

Moreover, based on the data obtained as a result of a mediametric analysis of the Russian media, a similar conclusion can be drawn: Madagascar is not included in the list of priority foreign policy directions of the Russian Federation at the moment.

Mediametric analysis of the frequency of mentioning the Republic of Madagascar in the Russian media on the example of Russia Today

Source: the author's mediametric analysis.

The conceptual foundations of the foreign policy course of the Russian Federation in relation to the Republic of Madagascar are considered within the framework of the entire African direction of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation. After the end of the USSR, Africa did not lose its relevance for Russia, however, the specifics of cooperation in comparison with the Soviet Union have changed significantly: in 1993, cooperation with Africa was viewed through the prism of a lack of ideology and greater benefits for Russia, however, at the moment the Russian Federation considers the states of Africa as actors in building a new just world order, That is why bilateral relations with African States include assistance from the Russian Federation in establishing peace on the continent, mutually beneficial trade relations and assistance in the process of comprehensive development of the African states themselves. As for the Republic of Madagascar, at the moment this state is not included in the list of priority areas for the Russian Federation, as indicated by the analysis of the structure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation and the media metric analysis of the leading Russian media.

The current state of bilateral cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar

Based on the information voiced during an interview with the International Life magazine by the Ambassador of the Russian Federation to the Republic of Madagascar Andreev A.V., it can be stated with confidence that modern bilateral relations have the following characteristic features:

1. The similarity of state positions on key foreign policy issues, which include the construction of a just world order, decolonization, disarmament, prohibition of the reincarnation of Nazism, information security;

2. Unshakable recognition and respect for the assistance provided by the USSR both in the issue of gaining independence of the Republic of Madagascar and in the further development of the state;

3. The Republic of Madagascar adheres to neutrality on the issue of the conflict on the territory of Ukraine, being sympathetic to the reasons for the start of a special military operation;

4. The Russian Federation supports the sovereignty of the Republic of Madagascar over the islands of Epars (Glorieuse, Juan de Nova, Europa and Bassas da India);

5. Support from the Republic of Madagascar for learning the Russian language on its own territory ^[8].

In order to comprehensively study the current level of bilateral cooperation between the States, it is necessary to analyze the following areas of international cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar: political, economic, cultural and humanitarian.

Political cooperation. The main drivers of the development of political cooperation between the Republic of Madagascar and the Russian Federation are high-level and top-level bilateral visits, meetings on the sidelines of various international organizations, and Russia-Africa forums.

Based on the information provided on the official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, since 2007, more than 10 different high- and top-level meetings have been held on both sides.

The key normative legal acts that serve as a driver for the development of bilateral relations are:

1. Agreements between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Madagascar on the settlement of the debt of the Republic of Madagascar to the Russian Federation on previously granted loans (2000, 2003, 2005);

2. Addendum to the agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Madagascar on the settlement of the debt of the Republic of Madagascar to the Russian Federation on previously granted loans (2001, 2003);

3. Agreements between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Madagascar on the use of the debt of the Republic of Madagascar to the Russian Federation for the purpose of financing development Projects in the Territory of the Republic of Madagascar (2015);

4. Agreements between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Madagascar on military Cooperation (2018);

5. Agreements between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Madagascar on military-technical cooperation (2022).

Moreover, one of the most obvious factors in the development of bilateral political cooperation is the previously indicated support from the Russian Federation for the territorial integrity and rights of the Republic of Madagascar to the islands of Epars (Gloriez, Juan de Nova, Europa and Bassas da India). In this context, the Russian Federation continues the foreign policy course laid down by the Soviet Union: the USSR has repeatedly supported, within the framework of the UN General Assembly, the desire of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar to restore the territorial integrity of the country, as evidenced by the results of voting on UN General Assembly resolutions A/RES/34/91 and A/RES/35/123, where the Soviet Union and a large Some of the states of the socialist camp supported Madagascar, while the countries of the capitalist camp supported France, which previously owned this territory and did not seek to release the former colonies from its sphere of influence ^[9].

The history of the territorial dispute between France and Madagascar dates back to the time of Paris' colonial possession of territories on the African continent. After gaining independence from the former colonies, many islands became part of the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, which is why the ownership of these territories is still disputed by African States. By the beginning of the new millennium, France had managed to settle the territorial dispute only with the Republic of Seychelles ^[10].

Economic cooperation. The current economic cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar can be characterized by the words given in the framework of the previously mentioned interview with the Ambassador of the Russian Federation to the Republic of Madagascar Andreev A.V.: "Let's be honest ‒ today the existing potential of economic cooperation is not being used effectively enough. Moreover, under the influence of adverse factors related in recent years to the pandemic, the complex geopolitical context, and Western sanctions against Russia, the development of our contacts has significantly slowed down."

The bilateral trade turnover between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar in 2022 amounted to 3.2 million US dollars, the trade balance is shifted towards exports from Madagascar. The key commodities exported from Madagascar are spices, aircraft parts, and natural resources, while Russia exports plastics and derivatives, flour milling products, and animal fats ^[11].

It is important to understand that the start of its operations on the territory of Ukraine had a significant impact on bilateral trade between Russia and Madagascar. According to The OEC (The Observatory of Economic Complexity), the dynamics of bilateral trade (in millions of US dollars) is as follows: in 2018 – 25.7, in 2019 – 23.06, in 2020 – 29.8, in 2021 – 50.85, in 2022 - 3.2.

Due to the small volume of bilateral trade between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar in 2022, the appearance of aircraft parts with a total value of 200 thousand US dollars in the export line of the Republics of Madagascar may be misleading: the export of products of this commodity group does not indicate the establishment of "parallel imports" between the two states, but only says about a one-time sale to the Russian Federation "Aircraft and other aircraft, with an empty curb weight of more than 2000 kg, but not more than 15,000 kg."

Cultural and humanitarian cooperation. The key tools for the development of bilateral cultural and humanitarian cooperation are the study of the Russian language in the Republic of Madagascar and the holding of events aimed at popularizing the culture of both states. Russian Russian researchers have noted that in 2023, Centers for Open Education in Russian and Russian Language Teaching (COE) were opened on the territory of the Republic of Madagascar and other African states through the mediation of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation. The COE on the basis of the University of Antananarivo was opened with the direct participation of specialists from the Shadrinsky State Pedagogical University. Moreover, a grant program was introduced aimed at attracting students from the Republic of Madagascar to study in the territory of the Russian Federation. This program was named "RoMaSey" - Russia, Madagascar, Seychelles ^[12].

Thus, it can be concluded that modern bilateral relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar are based on the similarity of the positions of both states on key issues of international relations, on respect for the history of bilateral relations, on the neutrality of the Republic of Madagascar on the conflict in Ukraine, on the support of the Russian Federation for the territorial integrity of the Republic of Madagascar, on strengthening cultural ties between states.

Political cooperation between the two states is based on high- and top-level bilateral visits, meetings on the sidelines of various international organizations, and Russia-Africa forums. Economic cooperation includes bilateral trade between the two countries. Cultural and humanitarian cooperation consists of studying the Russian language in the Republic of Madagascar and holding events aimed at popularizing the culture of both countries.

However, it is worth noting that the stumbling block to the rapid development of bilateral cooperation is the weak development of economic and trade relations: bilateral trade between Russia and Madagascar does not meet the level of development of political, cultural and humanitarian relations. The author believes that close economic cooperation between the two states, built on mutual respect and mutual benefit, can become a driver for the development of both political and cultural and humanitarian relations.

Prospects for Russian-Madagascar cooperation

In this section, the author will highlight promising areas of cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar:

1. The development of bilateral trade by increasing the export of Russian technological solutions to the Republic of Madagascar in order to increase the extraction of natural resources on the island, which can serve as a factor in the development of the country's economy ^[13];

2. Increasing the volume of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Madagascar's economy in order to improve Madagascar's domestic economic potential;

3. Attracting the population of the Republic of Madagascar to work in the Russian Federation in order to reduce the aggravated personnel crisis in the Russian Federation with a permanent increase in the population of Madagascar ^[14];

4. Development of cooperation in the field of the armed forces: The Russian Federation has the ability to repair, modernize and update the technical component of the armed forces of the Republic of Madagascar due to the prevalence of Soviet-made equipment in the Armed Forces of the Republic of Madagascar.

Conclusion

Bilateral relations between the Republic of Madagascar and the Soviet Union have a rich history and are inextricably linked with the name of the President of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar, Didier Ratsirik, during whose tenure diplomatic relations between the countries were established due to the similar domestic and foreign policy ideological course of both states. The Soviet Union provided comprehensive assistance to the young Republic, which affected many areas of Madagascar's life. At the same time, the Soviet Union promoted the ideology of socialism and did not allow the expansion of the presence of Western powers in Africa.

The foreign policy of the Russian Federation towards African states after the collapse of the Soviet Union implied cooperation with the states of the continent through the prism of lack of ideology and greater benefits for Russia, however, at the moment the Russian Federation considers the states of Africa as actors in building a new just world order, which is why bilateral relations with African states include assistance from the Russian Federation The Federation's role in establishing peace on the continent, mutually beneficial trade relations and assistance in the process of comprehensive development of the African States themselves. As for the Republic of Madagascar, at the moment this state is not included in the list of priority areas for the Russian Federation, as indicated by the analysis of the structure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation and the media metric analysis of the leading Russian media.

Bilateral relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar are based on developed political relations, consisting of bilateral visits at high and top levels, meetings on the sidelines of various international organizations, forums "Russia-Africa" cultural and humanitarian relations based on the study of the Russian language in the Republic of Madagascar and holding events aimed at popularizing culture both countries, and underdeveloped trade and economic relations.

Promising areas of bilateral cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Madagascar are increasing bilateral trade by increasing exports of Russian technological solutions to the Republic of Madagascar, increasing foreign direct investment (FDI) in the economy of Madagascar, attracting the population of the Republic of Madagascar to work in the Russian Federation, and developing cooperation with the armed forces.