Technological nationalism as a factor in the struggle for leadership among the leading states in the international arena (using the example of Russia, the USA and China)

Poluhina Viktoriya Dmitrievna Senior Lecturer; Department of Applied Informatics; Novosibirsk State University of Economics and Management 630005, Russia, Novosibirsk region, Novosibirsk, Kamenskaya str., 52/1 viktoriapoluhina72588@gmail.com

Introduction

In the modern world, the importance of technology is increasing. As of 2024, we can state the increased spontaneity and anarchism of international relations, which is associated with the increasing pace of the technological race. The leading countries - Russia, China, and the United States - are promoting advanced IT (Information Technologies) technologies within their countries, developing e-government as part of strategies to establish a leadership position in the technology sector. The development of technology in the state can be reflected in the formation and spread of e-governance, e-government, which depends, in particular, on government measures. Electronic government is an information and telecommunication means of providing public services online ^{[19, p. 82]}. Investments directed into the IT industry can serve as an indicator of the increased role of IT in the domestic policy of states. They are a strategic resource that States use to strengthen their leadership in the international arena. Electronic government (E-governance) is one of the main elements contributing to strengthening the country's position in the field of technological development. The introduction of digital technologies into the work of government agencies makes it possible to increase the internal efficiency of management. In the international arena, this demonstrates technological advancement, forming the image of an innovation-oriented state, and opens up opportunities for leadership in the field of information technology.

Various information and telecommunication technologies, including AI, are needed for the development of e-government. According to the definition of the National Strategy for the Development of Artificial Intelligence for the period up to 2030, "artificial intelligence is a set of technological solutions that allow simulating human cognitive functions (including searching for solutions without a predefined algorithm) and obtaining results comparable to or superior to the results of human intellectual activity when performing specific tasks" ^{[6, p. 51]}. The implementation of the e-government concept will contribute to improving the quality of public services, which, in turn, will make the country more competitive in the global race for leadership in the IT sector. Examples of the integration of digital technologies into government activities, the development of national IT development strategies, large investments in the development of information and telecommunication technologies, and their financing all emphasize their strategic importance for leading states.

The main objectives of the study are to characterize technological nationalism, consider the process of digitalization in Russia, China and the United States from the moment of the introduction of e-government to the present day, and analyze the impact of competition in technological terms on accelerating the pace of innovation.

Let's consider the stages of formation of national strategies of Russia, the USA and China. The development of e-government is noted in the national strategies of these countries.: it leads to the strengthening of technological nationalism, allows protecting national interests and demonstrating technological superiority ^{[13, p. 226]}.

Various experts have been dealing with the issue of technological nationalism as a factor in the race for leadership. Technological nationalism is an ideology aimed at the development of technologies within the state, as well as their protection and control, manifested as state support for domestic innovations, limiting the transfer of IT technologies to other states and promoting national interests in the international arena. Widespread strengthening of cybersecurity, support for local technologies, data protection and privacy, as well as the creation of a national digital infrastructure are key parameters whose approach aims to minimize dependence on foreign technologies and strengthen control over national data. Self-sufficiency in critical sectors such as defense, energy, and healthcare is becoming a matter of national security. Government support for domestic innovations, in the form of subsidies, tax incentives and government orders, stimulates the development of national technology companies, creates jobs and promotes economic growth. Active investment in research and development (R&D) makes it possible to increase the country's technological potential and create competitive products on the global market. However, an excessive display of technological nationalism can lead to negative consequences. Restricting technology imports and cooperation with foreign partners slows down technological progress, depriving the country of access to advanced knowledge and experience. Isolation from the global research and development network can lead to technological backwardness in the long run, as innovations are often the result of international collaboration and the exchange of ideas. Protecting national data and privacy is certainly an important aspect of technological nationalism. However, unnecessarily strict controls can hinder the development of international trade and data cooperation, which is important for global economic growth. For example, strict restrictions on cross-border data transfer can make it difficult for international companies to operate and limit access to global markets for national enterprises. The impact of technological nationalism on international relations is also ambiguous. On the one hand, it can help strengthen national sovereignty and enhance security. On the other hand, it can lead to trade wars, technological isolation and escalation of international tensions. The policy of protecting one's own technology market may trigger retaliatory measures from other countries, which will eventually damage the economic interests of all participants. In the study "The US-China tech innovation race", A. Capri examines technological initiatives at the state level of the United States and China, compares today's rivalry for leadership in technology with the race between the United States and the USSR for primacy in the space race. ^{[22, p.1]} Capri, in this work, proves that China's mercantilist policy She provoked the United States to start financing the IT field in order to surpass China's technological development.

A.A. Kapustin in his article "Comparative analysis of the features of the strategy for the development of artificial intelligence in the USA and China" analyzes the strategies used for the development of artificial intelligence in these two countries. He explores the emerging contradictions that are associated with the rise of technological nationalism. In particular, Kapustin draws attention to how the increasing sovereignty of states and the active development of technology can lead to limited international exchange of experience and knowledge in the field of digital technologies.

I.A. Tsvetkov conducted an analysis in his article "New Nationalism and the struggle for dominance in the global digital cultural space", during which he noted the emergence of fragmentation in the global technological sphere. He also confirmed that there is currently an active competition for leadership in the field of technology. Technological nationalism has a direct impact on the decisions made by the state, which shape the domestic and foreign policy of the state. It manifests itself in the form of creating favorable conditions for domestic companies working in the field of IT technologies and limiting the export of these strategic technologies. For example, in Russia, it is manifested through programs that are aimed at reducing dependence on foreign developments, namely the introduction of "National AI Development Strategies", projects to develop import-substituting programs in IT. Russia's technological nationalism is developing under the pressure of sanctions, domestic MOYOFFICE operating systems are being created, alternative platforms for international settlements of SPFS instead of Swift, measures for the production of electronics and chips under the control of the Ministry of Industry and Trade. The government provides an example of isolating access to Russian technology by restricting the use of the GLONASS satellite navigation system in order to prevent its use in aspects unfavorable to Russia, which undoubtedly strengthens technological autonomy, while at the same time impairs international cooperation.

In the United States, technological nationalism is manifested in the strengthening of the semiconductor industry and the restriction of licenses for the export of sensitive technologies to China, as well as the imposition of sanctions against Huawei, its subsidiaries and a number of other Chinese companies. China, in turn, is developing its own industrial facilities necessary for 5G communications to offset the sanctions consequences, just like Russia.

Technological initiatives of Russia

Conducting a historical analysis of the technological development of the Russian Federation, we note that the beginning of the development of e-government dates back to the 2000s. The first program that defined the process of informatization in Russia was approved by a Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated January 28, 2002. This document, "Electronic Russia for 2002-2010," was aimed at improving interdepartmental information exchange, improving the quality of services provided by the state, and introducing information and telecommunications tools into the work of government authorities. Federal Law No. 8-FZ of February 9, 2009 "On providing access to information on the activities of Government agencies and local governments" established the need to provide information about government agencies in all possible accessible ways, including on the Internet. In 2012, Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 601 "On the main directions for improving the public administration system" established the necessary directions for the development of e-government. The main achievement was the creation of a public services portal that provides online services to citizens and organizations ^{[12, p. 20]}.

According to the UN E-Government Development Index for 2024, Russia ranked 43rd among 193 countries. The priority task of the Government of the Russian Federation is the development of artificial intelligence and its implementation in the work of government agencies. On October 10, 2019, Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 490 "On the development of Artificial Intelligence in the Russian Federation" was signed. This document outlines key goals such as accelerating the development of artificial intelligence technologies in the country, improving the training of specialists in this field, conducting scientific research in the field of AI with a view to further their application in enterprises, as well as increasing the availability of information. The President stressed that Russia must take a competitive position in the field of artificial intelligence, which, in turn, will contribute to significant breakthroughs in the economy and other important social sectors. The Decree with amendments dated February 15, 2024 approves the National AI Development Strategy for the period up to 2030. The paragraphs of the Strategies state the need for AI research and implementation in all structures of the Russian Federation ^{[19, p. 92]}.

President Vladimir Putin makes decisions that will help the IT sector develop more successfully, for example, measures to support companies related to this industry. The development of domestic software products is encouraged. In a statement on June 7, 2024, at the Plenary Session of the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum, Vladimir Putin noted that at least 80% of Russian organizations should switch to domestic-made software. The Russian Federation is actively using e-government, and new functionality is constantly being added. New programs for automating bureaucratic work are being developed on the official website of Public Services, and platforms are actively developing, which is a step towards taking the lead in the technology race. E-government, as an instrument of political, economic, and social changes affecting the internal strategy of states, is undergoing both successes and difficulties. The successful implementation of the public services platform has become a priority for rapid digitalization, but the imbalance in the availability of services to the public with low integration of regional services contributes to a decrease in the quality of service. By 2030, digital platforms of the main sectors of the economy, including the social sphere, should be formed. About 700 billion rubles will be allocated for the implementation of the Data Economy project, aimed at digitalizing Russian government structures using software created in Russia. This indicates the high degree of interest of the president in the development of the industry ^{[9, p. 229]}.

The National Strategy contains paragraph 12, which states: "Through the implementation of this Strategy, conditions should be created for effective interaction between the state, organizations, including scientific ones, and citizens in the field of artificial intelligence development, which will allow Russian artificial intelligence technologies to occupy a significant share of the global market." The desire to develop technologies in an accelerated mode, to introduce them everywhere into various authorities and to set them as a priority task of the government, confirms the hypothesis of the emergence of a technology development race among the leading states. This may be confirmed by paragraph 17 of the National Strategy dated February 15, 2024: "The implementation of this Strategy, taking into account the current situation in the global artificial intelligence market and medium-term forecasts for its development, is a prerequisite for the entry of the Russian Federation into the group of world leaders in the development and implementation of artificial intelligence technologies and, as a result, the technological independence and competitiveness of the country" ^{[11, p. 1892]}. According to recent statements, it can be concluded that the development of technology is important for the Russian Federation and that the country is striving to take a leading position in the struggle for technological independence. These initiatives became the basis for the formation of state policy in the field of digitalization and identified a direction for the promotion of digital nationalism.

These initiatives became the basis for the formation of state policy in the field of digitalization and identified a direction for the promotion of digital nationalism. The introduction of e-government, the development of artificial intelligence, and the desire to improve digital technologies show a breakthrough in the technological sphere of the state, which is necessary to maintain the country's competitiveness. The digitalization of Russia has a significant difference from the United States and China. The sanctions regime imposed by Western countries creates serious obstacles to access to advanced technologies, software and equipment. This is not just a restriction on the import of ready–made solutions, but a blow to the entire innovation chain, from basic research to product commercialization. The lack of free exchange of knowledge and experience with the international community slows down the pace of technological development and leads to isolation from global trends. The desire for technological independence, which is a consequence of these limitations, poses a difficult task for Russia. It has to independently create almost all the necessary infrastructure, from operating systems and microprocessors to cloud platforms and software for various industries. In this regard, Russia is striving for technological independence, faced with the need to independently develop the country's IT technologies. Russia's efforts in technology development directly affect its international standing. This helps strengthen national sovereignty and reduces dependence on external constraints such as sanctions. However, it also reinforces technological nationalism, on the one hand opening up opportunities to stimulate domestic development, create new jobs, strengthen national security and ensure sovereignty in critical sectors of the economy, and on the other hand isolation from the global network of scientific and technological exchange. This, in turn, will limit Russia's access to technology exchange and lead to the need to develop local initiatives.

According to Alex Capri, an expert in the field of international trade and technology, technonationalism forces the formation of a policy of protectionism, in his work "Techno-nationalism and diplomacy", he argues that the state restricts the export of technology and develops national alternatives ^{[22, p. 3]}. Thus, Russia, like China, has begun accelerated technology development due to export restrictions from other countries. After analyzing the stages of the formation of Russian digitalization, we can conclude that it is characterized by the preservation of strategic security and global influence.

U.S. Technology Initiatives

Let's turn to the analysis of the activities of the Government of the United States of America. In 2002, the U.S. Government passed the Electronic Government Act, which aims to simplify and systematize the provision of public services on the Internet. Two years later, in 2004, the portal "USA.gov ", which has become the main resource for citizens' access to important government services and information. This portal has become an important step in the development of digital technologies in the public sector, making it easier for people to find the necessary services and receive information from the government. Since that time, amendments and new documents regulating technological developments, including their implementation in the work of government agencies, have been adopted almost annually.

The US government is actively investing in the country's technological development, as confirmed by reports from the Garthner Statistical Agency. For example, in the United States of America, back in 2019, Donald Trump signed a decree on the promotion of artificial intelligence at the state level, which contains statements that the development of AI is the primary task of the United States in maintaining the country's national security ^{[8, p. 630]}. This confirms the strategic commitment of the United States to maintain its leading position in the technology race and ensure national security through innovative developments and advanced technologies. Government agencies should increase funding for AI research, development, and access to government data, including training government employees to work with artificial intelligence. In 2020, a law was signed on the modernization of departmental IT centers. These initiatives demonstrate the United States' desire to maintain global leadership through investments in science and technology, making it a major technological power. At the same time, competition with China and cyber threats require constant updating and improvement of strategies. The competition with China goes far beyond a simple economic struggle, it is a geopolitical confrontation encompassing spheres of influence, standards, and even ideology. The Chinese development model, based on public-private partnerships and active government support for technology companies, allows it to rapidly increase capacity in the fields of artificial intelligence, quantum computing, 5G and other critical sectors. The "Made in China 2025" program, aimed at technological independence, is a prime example of this strategy. Chinese companies, which often receive significant government support, aggressively enter global markets, creating competition for American technology giants. The United States seeks to maintain its global leadership in the IT sector and protect its technologies from competitors such as China, controls key technologies and promotes the digital government initiative, which supports their dominance, but also causes friction with other countries ^{[4, p. 2]}. The UN e-government Rating in 2024 showed that that the United States ranked 10th in terms of EP development. This indicates that the United States is actively striving to introduce and develop modern technologies into government processes in order to achieve high performance and occupy a dominant position in the world. The country is investing heavily in the digitalization of public services, which includes creating user-friendly online platforms, simplifying citizens' interaction with government authorities, and increasing transparency of processes. They also restrict the export of high technologies to China, creating new barriers and raising questions about the future of cooperation and technology exchange. This could lead to even greater fragmentation of the global technology ecosystem. Successfully created integrated platform "USA.gov " it has increased the convenience and accessibility of public services for the population. The disadvantage is the unavailability of online services to the public in remote and rural areas where there is no Internet.

Digitalization is a multifaceted process of introducing technology into society. Currently, they are developing rapidly, while automating the processes taking place in the state, and also entail difficulties in application and regulation, since the previously used methods and types of conducting foreign policy are being transformed ^{[10, p. 21]}. States need to learn how to effectively apply technology in order to successfully adapt to changes. Only if this condition is met will it be possible to move to a new level of formation of the state's foreign and domestic policy.

Due to the spread of digitalization in the field of world politics, digital diplomacy, global Internet governance and digital electoral technologies have gained a new status. In addition to Russia and the United States, the People's Republic of China is "fighting" for technological superiority. The Chinese Government pays considerable attention to the development of technologies, including e-government. China has also joined the fight for technological leadership.

China's Technology Initiatives

China, like Russia and the United States, is developing AI technologies, integrating them into government management systems. The digitization of China dates back to 1998, with the Golden Bridge initiative, the essence of which was to develop telecommunications networks and create conditions that facilitated the introduction of electronic public services, thereby developing e-government. This initiative served as the foundation for building modern digital services for us, and also accelerated the process of developing China's digital technologies. In 2006, the National Information Strategy was adopted, the main goal of which was to develop information and telecommunication technologies (ICT) in order to improve the efficiency of public administration. The introduction of e-government through the Smart City initiative indicates a high level of technological progress in the country, but the disadvantage is the level of digital literacy of the population.

In 2017, the State Council of China published a "New Generation AI Development Plan." It sets out the goal: to develop China's information and telecommunication technologies to a world-class level in the field of IT by 2030, as well as in the documents of the National Strategy of Russia and the United States. Where the need for personnel training and the introduction of AI into the structures of the state apparatus and economic organizations of the country are approved. In particular, China is actively developing electronic media, in 2024, according to the UN rating, China's place was 35, which indicates a fairly high level of technology development implemented by the government ^{[15, p. 593]}.

In 2022, the Chinese Academy of Information and Communication Technologies published the White Paper on Artificial Intelligence, which emphasizes the strategic importance of AI development. The document contains the directions and measures necessary to occupy a leading position in the world in terms of AI development. These include: creating an infrastructure for the sustainable operation of AI, improving existing technologies, stimulating IT industry personnel for innovative discoveries, improving the system of advanced training, internships necessary to eliminate the shortage of personnel in the field of AI specialists ^{[24, p. 5]}.

In 2024, the Shenzhen Artificial Intelligence Industry Association presented a White Paper on the development of AI. This document contains an analysis of the current state of artificial intelligence and its future prospects. As in the previous report, attention is focused on the importance of cooperation between government agencies and scientific institutions for the successful promotion of AI technologies. China is actively implementing the concept of e-government, which is part of a strategy for developing technical nationalism aimed at implementing national plans. This is confirmed by international ratings assessing the level of digital development of the country. Such initiatives underscore China's desire to take a leading position in global technological competition, thereby ensuring technological nationalism and strengthening its competitiveness on the global stage.

A large flow of Chinese finance is directed to research and development in the field of artificial intelligence, high-speed 5G communication networks and medicine. China's high level of digital development is also reflected in the presence of such areas as "Made in China 2025" and "Digital China". A large number of technology giants are concentrated in the People's Republic of China.

For example, one of the key manufacturers of Huawei equipment, the trading mastodon Alibaba, and the large corporation Tencent. Now it can be argued that China has taken the position of one of the world leaders in the field of technology. Biotechnologies and advanced telecommunications should be highlighted as a unique area of China's technological development. Artificial intelligence is being introduced into various sectors of the economy. ZTE and Huawei are developing China in the field of communication and telecommunication technologies, introducing 5G networks everywhere. Biotechnologies are represented in China by the achievements of genetic engineering, breeding, agriculture and pharmaceuticals. Private investments together with government support allow enterprises to develop unique innovative technologies and promote scientific progress ^{[1, p. 102]}.

China is actively developing e-government and integrating AI into government structures, accelerating technological growth and expanding its influence in the international arena. The Digital China and Internet Plus strategies show that Beijing wants to integrate technology into every aspect of life, creating a managed society. China's influence in the world is growing due to advances in technology and digital transformation, which is causing concern for the United States and its allies, provoking trade wars and technological competition. China's success in developing e–government and integrating artificial intelligence into government structures is the result of an integrated approach based on several key factors. Firstly, it is a purposeful state policy. Unlike many Western countries, where technological development often occurs spontaneously, under the influence of the market, China has chosen the path of centralized planning, which allowed it to concentrate efforts and resources on priority areas. China also has a huge amount of data. The country's billion-strong population generates a huge amount of information, which becomes a valuable raw material for learning artificial intelligence algorithms. China's success in digital transformation is the result of a deliberate strategy, significant investments, risk tolerance, and effective government–private sector cooperation. However, these achievements are not without trends that cause concern on a global scale. The rise of China's technological nationalism is leading to the formation of new geopolitical alliances and a deepening split between supporters and opponents of the Chinese model of digitalization and control. Thus, the aggressive introduction of technology contributes to strengthening China's domestic position and increasing its influence in the world ^{[7, p. 320]}.

Conclusion

The base of the above advantages allows China to compete equally with the United States for technological leadership. In this struggle, the United States is forced to impose restrictions on technology supplies to China in order to achieve the goal of limiting Chinese enterprises' access to new advanced technologies. Supply chains are disrupted, which, of course, generates additional tension and the development of active retaliatory sanctions with new trade barriers. Like China, the United States is investing heavily in the field of artificial intelligence, which is now an indicator of leadership in the global market. There is a race between the United States and China for dominance in the field of quantum computing, cloud technologies, and communication technologies (high-speed 5G mobile network). The growing competition between China and the United States has changed the overall situation in the world and created new challenges for other countries. The increased need for technology development makes it necessary to increase the base of resources and talents, for which competition also inevitably occurs. The struggle of such major players in the technological field could not touch on the topic of cybersecurity and digital espionage, which both sides regularly accuse each other of.

The rivalry of the above-mentioned states has a great impact not only on themselves, but also on global trends in technology development. China and the United States are continuously investing in R&D to strengthen their positions. This confrontation clearly affects international relations and the future of technology for the whole world. According to Alex Capri, states are beginning to use digital technologies as a tool of geopolitical influence, which only exacerbates the manifestation of technological nationalism ^{[21, p. 2]}. Within its framework, states prefer to restrict foreign companies' access to new technologies in order to protect their national interests. The consequences are also expressed in the emergence of a new form of political influence. An example is the actions of the United States towards China, namely restrictions on technology exports, such as the supply of chips and components necessary for 5G, which requires China to review its technology development strategy and develop local production facilities. Technologies are used to strengthen their political positions and promote their interests. The technological "race" entails the emergence and intensification of international conflicts. Contradictions in the field of cybersecurity can lead to information warfare ^{[23, p. 3]}.

E-government, as part of the national strategy for the digitalization of the state, represents an impact on the technological competition of leading countries. In this regard, it can be argued that its implementation will make the country more attractive for investment by increasing the efficiency of government. The Chinese experience is a prime example of how platform solutions such as Smart City can optimize business processes and create opportunities for the introduction of digital technologies into the economy. At the same time, the information war mentioned earlier poses a real threat to national security, and it is digital protection that can provide protection against various cyber threats. The high level of development of e-government not only underlines the prestige of the country, but also helps to attract partners for cooperation in the field of technology. The technological "race" between states has become a new form of competition that has long gone beyond simple competition in the field of innovation. The most important factor in this race has become e-government, which is a key indicator of the level of technological development. Under the current conditions, countries are forced to implement and develop EDS along with research and development to meet the global level of continuous technological progress and to strengthen the country's competitiveness in the international arena.

The conducted analysis allows us to conclude that the global technological race, manifested in the rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI), digitalization of government structures and automation of labor, is an indisputable fact of the modern world system. It has an impact on the global digital transformation, as technology becomes a component of the technological development race, namely political influence. The experience of Russia, the USA and China clearly demonstrates the impact of the technological race on the geopolitical situation. In the future, success in the technology race will be determined not only by the volume of investments and the number of engineers, but also by the ability of states to effectively manage technological risks and ensure the ethical and responsible development of innovations. Russia, striving for technological sovereignty, focuses on developing its own AI solutions and import substitution in key technology sectors, while facing sanctions pressure and limited access to advanced technologies. The United States, as a leader in AI development, is trying to strengthen its technological superiority by investing in scientific research and the development of innovative ecosystems, but at the same time it faces challenges related to ethical issues of AI application and the threat of technological monopolization. China, on the other hand, is demonstrating an impressive pace of development in the field of AI and digitalization, relying on large-scale government investments and the mobilization of a huge number of qualified specialists. However, China is facing concerns from other countries about data controls and the potential use of AI to crack down on dissidents. In the future, success in the technology race will be determined not only by the volume of investments and the number of engineers, but also by a whole range of interrelated factors.