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Reference:
Zakharova, E.M. (2025). F.I. Tyutchev's Lyrics in the Philosophical Criticism of V. Solovyov. Litera, 3, 348–358. . https://doi.org/10.25136/2409-8698.2025.3.70333
F.I. Tyutchev's Lyrics in the Philosophical Criticism of V. Solovyov
DOI: 10.25136/2409-8698.2025.3.70333EDN: YKOCYJReceived: 02-04-2024Published: 03-04-2025Abstract: Materialistic idealism, objective idealism, practical idealism, positive aesthetics – such heterogeneous definitions are given by researchers to the critical method of Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov. Based on the article "Poetry of F.I. Tyutchev" (1895), first published in the journal "Bulletin of Europe", conclusions are drawn about the essence and set of criteria of Solovyov in the interpretation and evaluation of lyrics. Solovyov's article was ambiguously accepted by contemporaries, as well as by researchers of the philosopher's work. On the one hand, critics pointed to the philosophical approach in the article, and on the other, rejected the author's excessive desire to endow lyrical lines with existential content. It is noted that the fundamental idea of the text under consideration is to demonstrate what the inner meaning and purpose of Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev's poetic heritage are. Attention is drawn to the universalism of the criteria put forward by Solovyov for evaluating poetic creativity: animation, truth, artistry, poetry, patriotism. It is emphasized that the specificity of Solovyov's philosophical criticism is also at the level of poetics. The structure of the literary-critical judgment of the philosophical trend invariably includes generalizing judgments of an aphoristic nature, the image of an omniscient author, as well as the presence of two time layers. It is concluded that the small volume of the article turned out to be conceptual in two directions at the same time. The philosopher's interpretation of the lyrics became a turning point in the fate of Tyutchev's creative legacy. And the method of analysis presented in this literary-critical discussion contributed to the formation of the philosophical direction of literary criticism. Poetry and the poet have a sacred meaning for Solovyov, and therefore the addressee of critical articles is called upon to learn metaphysical views through a figurative system. In terms of genre, Solovyov's work represents a form that later became traditional for the philosophical trend – a literary and critical study of personality with an emphasis on the specifics of the artistic world as an integral phenomenon. Without exempting art as a whole from the categories of ethics, Solovyov also uses the ideological concepts of "faith", "truth", "predestination", "life", "death", "soul" to define Tyutchev's private poetry. Keywords: Literary criticism, critical method, poetics, philosophical criticism, poetry, aesthetics, evaluation criteria, lyrical hero, motive complexes, poetologyThis article is automatically translated. You can find original text of the article here.
Introduction
In the Russian literary process, criticism could be called one of the youngest trends. And thanks to this, researchers of critical personalities and texts have an advantage, since the task of discovering the genealogy of various aesthetic systems is really feasible. Every year there are more and more dissertations and scientific articles about critics who practice today (see the works of Yu.A. Govorukhina[3], B. Menzel[4], and others). In most cases, the critical authors themselves name their predecessors. Thus, the ideologist of "new realism" V. Pustovaya openly points to the teacher in literary criticism, I.B. Rodnyanskaya. In turn, close attention to Rodnyanskaya's collected works will reveal that the founder of philosophical criticism, Vladimir Solovyov, had a significant influence on the formation of theoretical and methodological foundations. The purpose of this article is to find criteria for the interpretation and evaluation of lyrics in general and the legacy of Fyodor Tyutchev in particular from the point of view of the formation of literary criticism of the philosophical trend. Through the analysis of the poetics of the literary and critical statement "The Poetry of Fyodor Tyutchev", first published in 1895 in the journal Vestnik Evropy, it seems possible to come to an understanding of Solovyov's method, and therefore to identify the features of the philosophical direction of criticism. Despite the fact that researchers rightly call Solovyov a "poet-critic"[5], pointing out at the same time the philosopher's geneological connection with symbolism, the objectives of this article do not include an analysis of the problem of "Solovyov and symbolism" (See the works of Buslakova T.P.[6], Popova M.N.[7], Maksimenko M.S.[8], Gaidenko P.P.[9]).
"The luminary of philosophical criticism"
One of the most common approaches to the description of literary criticism should be considered the identification of trends and trends based on historical and cultural stages and chronological sequence. In this case, it is customary to talk about separate periods: real, pochvennic, philosophical, and others. The last of these areas, philosophical, or philosophical criticism, is a relatively new problem in literary criticism. In one of the few works devoted to this phenomenon, one can find a list of the main features: "identification of the general philosophical potential of the work", "correlation with philosophical systems", perception of the philosophical attitude as "system-forming"; "research of the "spirit of the writer", the search for the "central" (philosophical, religious) idea in the artist's work" [8, 38-39]. However, approaching specific texts shows that talking about philosophical criticism in the absence of clear criteria for distinguishing this trend from others is an unanswered question. And in this regard, A.V. Khrustaleva's judgment about the "vagueness" of the term "philosophical criticism" is true. The chronological approach to the problem of classification of literary criticism remains vulnerable and needs to be supplemented with information on theory in such aspects as literary critical genres, "theory of the research method" [9, 179]. The most promising approach is to look at the typology of literary criticism from the perspective of studying the specifics of the method[10]. The purpose of Solovyov's philosophical analysis, which Rodnyanskaya later resorted to, is to find out "which side of true Being the artist's soul responds to as its own idea, which ray of real Beauty illuminates the world of his creatures" [11, pp. 28-29]. Solovyov's literary and critical legacy itself, it is noted in the same work, contains "a saving energy that returns art to the world of the spirit" [11, p. 29]. One of the most important features of Solovyov's literary criticism is the emphasis on the artist's self-reflection. Poetry about poetry serves as a source of learning about the lyrical self. First of all, attention is paid to the poet's worldview, as well as his philosophical views, and works are evaluated by how poetic the form and content are. Solovyov's theoretical arguments about poetry are characterized by universalism: in an effort to provide an exhaustive analysis, the critic relies on data from both humanitarian knowledge (psychology, philosophy, theology, aesthetics) and natural sciences. In a generalized form, it can be said that Solovyov's critical method consists in "sacralization of poetry as the highest, divine kind of art", as well as "a high level of moral and aesthetic requirements of the critic to the poet" [12, p. 35].
Fyodor Tyutchev as the poet of the "mysterious foundations"
Solovyov's short article "The Poetry of Fyodor Tyutchev" became conceptual simultaneously for several reasons. On the one hand, the philosopher's interpretation of lyrics had a crucial impact on the perception of Tyutchev's creative legacy. What was said in the article included in the collection Philosophical Trends of Russian Poetry (1896) determined the attitude towards his poetry not only among representatives of the Silver Age, but also researchers of subsequent decades. On the other hand, the analysis demonstrated in this literary and critical discussion, as well as in other studies about Solovyov's personalities ("The Poetry of Count A.K. Tolstoy, "Lermontov," "Mickiewicz" and other articles) made a definite contribution to the formation of the philosophical trend of literary criticism. The fundamental idea of the text under consideration is to demonstrate the inner meaning and purpose of Tyutchev's poetic heritage. Solovyov compares Tyutchev's lyrical poetry with the unexplored treasures of the Russian land and states the absolute unexplored poetic heritage. Among the features that Solovyov highlights in his lyrical texts: "the harmony of inspiration with the life of nature is its perfect reproduction. < Tyutchev> physical phenomena as states and actions of a living soul" [11, p. 466]. For Solovyov, the inseparability of the author's personal beliefs and poetic views is fundamental. The article focuses on the fact that Tyutchev "fully and consciously believed in what he felt - he accepted and understood the living beauty he felt not as his fantasy, but as the truth" [11, p. 466]. One of the main theses of Solovyov's article is that the animateness of the human body indicates the animateness of the universal body. Everything in nature is alive and truly animated, and therefore "a lively attitude towards nature is an essential feature of poetry in general, distinguishing it from two kinds of prose: practical and abstract scientific"; Tyutchev "not only felt, but also thought like a poet." <...> he was convinced of the objective truth of the poetic view of nature" [11, p. 468]. Solovyov puts an equal sign between the poetic and the animated, explaining this using Tyutchev's example by the fact that only with the consent of inspiration and thought a true complete expression is born: "the whole visible world is not a collection of made things, but the continuing development and growth of a single living being" [11, p. 471]. When asked what determines Tyutchev's advantage over other poets, Solovyov answers: "the conviction of the truth of the poetic view of nature and the resulting wholeness of creativity, harmony between thought and feeling, inspiration and consciousness" [11, p. 471]. Naturally, it is in this article that Solovyov formulates the task of poetry in general: "to embody in tangible images the very highest meaning of life", "the perfect content of being" [11, p. 471]. In addition, it was Tyutchev, according to Solovyov, who captured the "dark root of world existence." The poet was equally sensitive to the "day" and "night" sides of the universe: "In depicting all these natural phenomena, where its dark side is more clearly felt, Tyutchev had no equal" [11, p. 476]. Interestingly, Solovyov considers the night side to be the basis of the entire universe, that is, chaos as the personification of everything negative, insane and ugly: "Life and beauty in nature are the struggle and triumph of light over darkness, but this necessarily assumes that darkness is a real force" [11, p. 475]. In the article, Solovyov draws several important conclusions about the meaning of poetry, as well as the purpose of human existence: "The meaning of man is himself, but not as a slave and an instrument of evil life, but as its conqueror and ruler" [11, p. 479]. For a comprehensive understanding of the criteria used by Solovyov in evaluating Tyutchev's poetry, one should refer to the article "The Meaning of Poetry in Pushkin's Poems." It is here that the meaning of poetry is formulated.: "Poetry can and should serve the cause of truth and goodness on earth, but only in its own way, only by its beauty and nothing else. Beauty itself is in proper relation to truth and goodness, as their tangible manifestation. Therefore, everything that is truly poetic – which means beautiful – will be meaningful and useful in the best sense of the word" [11, p. 321]. What are the essential criteria for Solovyov's system? The criteria by which Tyutchev's lyrics are evaluated are poetry, animation, truth, artistry, and patriotism. The last of these criteria deserves special attention. Solovyov repeatedly refers to Tyutchev as a "patriotic singer" in the article, but the negative connotation that arises here is diluted by the presence of humanity and highly poetic expression in his poetry. The conceptuality of the article for the historiosophical system of Solovyov's reflections is determined by the theses of the final part. Here, the philosopher first expounds in detail the poet's views on the mission of Russia, and then for the first time disagrees with Tyutchev's point of view. For the poet, Solovyov concludes, relying on Tyutchev's article "The Papacy and the World Question," "Russia's vocation as a Christian state was to "internally renew and externally unite all mankind," thereby becoming a "worldwide Christian monarchy" [11, pp. 480-481]. It is impossible to agree with researcher V.D. Emelianenko here that "the philosopher does not seek any discussion", Solovyov "does not enter into a polemic with the poet" and "develops, but in no way evaluates the ideas of Fyodor Tyutchev" [13, p. 79]. Despite the task of neither agreeing with nor challenging Tyutchev's prophecies, Solovyov, departing from the direct analysis of the lyrical legacy, concludes the article with a counter-monologue, part of which seems necessary to quote: "the fate of Russia does not depend on Tsargrad or anything like that, but on the outcome of the inner moral struggle of the light and dark beginnings in itself. <...> Let Russia, even without Tsargrad, at least within its present borders, become a Christian kingdom in the full sense of the word – the kingdom of truth and mercy – and then everything else will probably be added to it" [11, p. 483].
Poetics of "F.I. Tyutchev's Poetry"
Solovyov's article was ambiguously accepted by his contemporaries, as well as by researchers of the philosopher's work. A.M. Skabichevsky, describing the article about Tyutchev, said that the author had thrown a "philosophical fog"[11] and he tried to find the "secrets of the universe" in every poetic line. According to S.L. Frank, Solovyov endowed lyrical texts with "too abstract and doctrinally expressed worldview"[12]. For Solovyov's installations, it is essential that poetry is connected with the Absolute, and the poet has the mission of a prophet. That is why, G.H. Musayeva notes, poetry is perceived "as the embodiment of the objective beauty of the world and the human soul" [16, p. 17]. Precisely for the reason that aesthetics is inextricably linked with ethics in Solovyov's philosophical worldview, it is necessary to consider the structure of literary and critical judgment. The poetics of literary and critical judgment of the philosophical trend invariably includes generalizing judgments of an aphoristic nature: "The main manifestation of a person's mental life, revealing its meaning, is love, and here again our poet notes more strongly and more clearly than others the very demonic and chaotic basis to which he was sensitive in the phenomena of external nature" [11, p. 477]. It should also be said that the works of representatives of the philosophical direction of criticism differ in the presence of two time layers. Thus, Solovyov, referring to modernity, relies in his judgments on universal categories.: being, nature, soul, life, faith, truth. The image of the author can best be described by the word "omniscience". Emotionality is achieved not least due to expressive intonation and emphasis on individual words ("felt", "convinced", "believed"). The author's image appears to be deeply personal, but at the same time possessing more knowledge than the addressee. The researchers note that a peculiar duality can be observed in Solovyov's works: "The image of the author in Solovyov's articles is characterized by certain features: he is an omniscient author, with teaching, mentoring intonations, as if a bearer of absolute truth, who sometimes allows himself to speak in the name of Providence"; "The language of Solovyov's critical articles is characterized by a combination of two stylistic principles: analytical-discursive and lyrically imaginative, brilliant critical analysis with metaphysical reflections <...>" [12, p. 34].
Criteria of philosophical criticism
In an article about Tyutchev, the author invites readers to look at lyrics as something integral with a single image of the lyrical hero, a system of values and motor complexes, which corresponds to the poetological concept: what would later be called theurgy was fundamentally new in Solovyov's views on art. In this approach, art is defined as a source of transformation: the artist is obliged to change his being through his creativity. In this regard, poetry appears "as the embodiment of the objective beauty of the world and the human soul," which determines the value and "aesthetic approach to evaluating literary creativity, expressed in a number of articles about Russian poets of the 60-90s of the XIX century" [12, p. 30]. There is no consensus among researchers on how to define Solovyov's critical method terminologically more precisely: "materialistic idealism", "objective idealism" or "practical idealism"[13]. The influence of the founder of philosophical criticism on the strengthening of this trend in Rodnyanskaya's works is provided by both theoretical and methodological works (Beauty in Nature, The General Meaning of Art, The First Step towards Positive Aesthetics, etc.) and private literary and critical observations (The Fate of Pushkin, The Poetry of Fyodor Tyutchev, "Buddhist mood in poetry", etc.). In his articles on the personalities of the Silver Age, as well as in his works on the works of A.S. Pushkin, M.Y. Lermontov, A.B. Mickiewicz and other 19th-century authors, Vladimir Solovyov examines poetic worlds transcendently and at the same time without comparing them with the creative methods of other artists. Metaliterary statements, as well as forms of self-reflection of writers are considered along with works of fiction. Poetry about poetry serves as a source of learning about the lyrical self. First of all, attention is paid to the poet's worldview, as well as his philosophical views, while works are evaluated by how poetic the form and content are. Solovyov's critical method consists in "sacralization of poetry as the highest, divine kind of art", as well as "a high level of moral and aesthetic demands of the critic to the poet" [12, p. 35]. He defined his task in analyzing a work of art as follows: "to disassemble and show exactly what of the fullness of the universal meaning, which of its elements, which sides or manifestations of truth especially captured the poet's soul and were primarily expressed by him in artistic images and sounds. A critic should "reveal the deepest roots" of a given poet's creativity not from the side of his mental motives – this is more a matter for a biographer and literary historian - but mainly from the side of the objective foundations of this work, or its ideological content" [11, p. 530]. Thus, poetic activity was asserted "as a beautiful object representing in one form or another the truth of life or the meaning of the world" [11, p. 533]. Solovyov's poetology, that is, "the philosophy of poetry interpreted through the fate, creativity and historical perception of the heritage of specific poets" [14, p.13], is very extensive: literary and critical studies contain an analysis of the work of Alexei Tolstoy, Polonsky, Fet, Maikov, Sluchevsky and other statements about individual lyrical systems. And the attitude remained unchanged in literary and critical works: "art in its best examples is the embodiment of Beauty in a visual, verbal, and musical image" [17, p. 16]. It is important to return to Rodnyanskaya's metacritical works also because here Solovyov's positive aesthetics are characterized in detail.: "In this frame of reference, aesthetics correlates with the highest meaning of life, being included in a person's pursuit of the ideal" [11, p. 9], and the creator's mission is reduced to a prophetic function. Inspiration, according to Solovyov, is a category that an artist is doomed to protect both from his own motives and from outside influences. The same work also emphasizes that Solovyov is "the leading light of Russian philosophical criticism, moreover, its true founder. <...> it was he who demonstrated that philosophical analysis does not subordinate an artistic work to a scheme within which it is doomed to serve as an illustration of a thesis, but goes back to its objective semantic basis" [11, p. 38]. The identity can be seen in the features of genre systems: the dominant form for both Solovyov and Rodnyanskaya is a literary and critical study of personality, where preference is given not to the literary process, but to observing the specifics of the holistic artistic world. What Solovyov and Rodnyanskaya have in common is the plot, which is to solve a problem related to the sphere of spirituality or, in a narrow sense, to explore the artist's soul. According to Solovyov, "artistic activity ... serves the common life purpose of mankind" [11, p. 95]. It is at the moment of creative realization that the personality makes the most "penetration into the divine reality" [18, p. 283]. The key to success in this immersion was called human subordination of "thoughts and actions to moral dictates" [18, p. 283]. Moreover, Solovyov insists that art is not free from ethical categories.: "Goodness, separated from truth and beauty, is only an indefinite feeling, an impotent impulse, abstract truth is an empty word, and beauty without goodness and truth is an idol" [11, p. 76]. In another work, the philosopher notes that the construction of positive aesthetics begins when it is recognized: "artistic activity does not have any special higher object in itself, but only in its own way, by its own means, serves the common life goal of mankind" [11, p. 95]. The article "The Poetry of Fyodor Tyutchev" briefly demonstrates the principles of Solovyov's poetological concept as a whole. Thus, attention to Tyutchev's patriotic ideas is a consequence of an innovative requirement for art, namely, "the task of practical transformation of being, life creation" [12, p. 30]. At the same time, Solovyov's aesthetic approach to poetry was such that the criterion of artistry, or poetry, occupied a dominant position: poetry was presented "as the embodiment of the objective beauty of the world and the human soul" [12, p. 30]. The analyzed article is an example of Solovyov's traditional view of the poetic world, when neither influences nor the historical and literary context are taken into account in the analysis of poetology. In a study about an individual writer, "the holistic artistic world is considered. Solovyov, a critic, is characterized by an interest in an individual poet, rather than in the literary process. <...>" [12, p. 32]. The article by G.H. Asadulayeva says that the entire set of Solovyov's articles about Russian poets is divided into two cycles according to the criterion of motive organization: "In the cycle of articles about the poets of the "silver age", the main motifs: superconsciousness is the mysterious basis of creativity, the thesis that the general meaning of the universe is revealed to the poet as the beauty of nature and love. In the articles about the poets of the "golden age" – "The Fate of Pushkin", "Lermontov" and "Mickiewicz" – the motif of fate becomes the main one" [12, p. 33]. The analyzed article about Tyutchev's poetry cannot be included in any of these groups. The purpose of the work is to reveal to contemporaries the semantic content of the lyrics through a comparison of the poetic and personal beliefs of the author. And it is also important to note that the category of "lyrical hero", with the separation of biographical and textual authorship, is not used by Solovyov when evaluating poems and philosophical views of the poet. Poetry and the poet have a sacred meaning for Solovyov, and therefore the addressee of critical articles is called upon to learn metaphysical views through an imaginative system. A similar approach can be observed in the work on Polonsky. According to Solovyov, it is this poet who most clearly shows faith "in the broad spirit of universal humanity, which excludes national hostility" [11, p. 526]. However, in addition to Tyutchev's poetic texts, journalistic works are involved in the analysis, where not all ideas receive Solovyov's undivided support. The article about Tyutchev is unique because the focus of the critic's attention here continues to be not in the analysis of lyrics as such, but in the analysis of the poet's artistic philosophy.
Conclusions
The problem of Tyutchev and Solovyov, or Tyutchev's philosophical lyrics in Solovyov's literary criticism, is quite developed in various aspects: from the point of view of the historical and literary context (See the work of O.A. Chistyakova[14]), the comparison of literary and critical approaches (See the work of K. Sarycheva[15]), the influence of Tyutchev's poetry on Solovyov's artistic world (See the work of Okeansky V.P.[16]). The analysis of the philosopher's critical work on Tyutchev's poetry presented in this article demonstrates the significant properties of the critical method. The assessment of Tyutchev's poetic legacy is based on a philosophical interpretation. Solovyov's conceptual apparatus, or the criteria by which Tyutchev's lyrics are determined, are as follows: poetry, animation, truth, artistry, patriotism. With an article about Tyutchev, the author invites readers to look at the lyrics as something integral, where the image of the lyrical hero, a system of values and motor complexes are united. In terms of genre, Solovyov's work represents a form that later became traditional for the philosophical trend – a literary and critical study of personality with an emphasis on the specifics of the artistic world as an integral phenomenon. Without exempting art as a whole from the categories of ethics, Solovyov uses the ideological concepts of "faith", "truth", "predestination", "life", "death", and "soul" to define Tyutchev's private poetry. References
1. Asadulaeva, G.H. (2007). Features of the critical method of Vladimir Solovyov. Vestnik Dagestanskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 6, 30-36.
2. Buslakova, T.P. (1996). Vladimir Solovyov and “aesthetic decadence”. Serebryanyj vek russkoj literatury. Pp. 12-23. Moscow. 3. Chistyakova, O.A. (2007). Literary criticism Vl. Solovyov in the journal “Bulletin of Europe” using the example of the article “Poetry of F.I. Tyutchev". Vestnik novgorodskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 41, 75-78. 4. Emel'yanenko, V.D. (2013). Worldview V.S. Solovyov and the creativity of F.I. Tyutcheva. Istoricheskie, filosofskie, politicheskie i yuridicheskie nauki, kul'turologiya i iskusstvovedenie, 11(37), 76-81. 5. Frolova, N.A. (2008). The problem of the relationship between the ethical and the aesthetic in the philosophical concept of V.S. Solovyova. Vestnik TGU, 2(58), 281-285. 6. Gajdenko, P.P. (2001). Vladimir Solovyov and the philosophy of the Silver Age. Moscow: Progress-tradiciya. 7. Govoruhina, Yu.A. (2010). Russian literary criticism at the turn of the XX–XXI centuries. Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philology. Tomsk: Tomsk State. un-t. 8. Hrustaleva, A.V. (2012). On the five most important contradictions of the term “literary-critical method” from the point of view of the history of criticism. Vestn. Om. un-ta, 3, 158-161. 9. Hrustaleva, A.V. (2013). Symbolism in the perception of M.O. Gershenzon and S.L. Frank (on unresolved issues in the theory of literary criticism). Problemy filologii, kul'turologi i iskusstvoznaniya, 2, 179-184. 10. Art as a language – languages of art. (2017). State Academy of Art Sciences and aesthetic theory of the 1920s. Vol. 1. Edited by Plotnikova N.S., Podzemskaja N.P., Yakimenko Yu.N. Pp. 38-39. Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie. 11. Maksimenko, M.S. (2000). Vladimir Solovyov and his criticism of Russian symbolists. Vladimir Solov'ev i filosofsko-kul'turologicheskaya mysl XX veka. Pp. 264-267. Ivanovo: IGEU. 12. Mencel, B. (2006). Civil war of words. Russian literary criticism of the perestroika period. St. Petersburg: Academic project. 13. Musaeva, G.H. (2013). Poetry by Y.P. Polonsky in the literary and philosophical criticism of V.S. Solovyova. Vestnik Dagestanskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 3, 50-53. 14. Musaeva, G.H. (2011). Aesthetic foundations of philosophical and literary criticism V.S. Solovyova. Vestnik Dagestanskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 3, 16-19. 15. Okeanskij, V.P. (2001). Vladimir Solovyov and Fyodor Tyutchev. Solov'evskie issledovaniya, 3, 111-121. 16. Popov, M.N. (2001). Vladimir Solovyov and Russian symbolism. Vladimir Solov'ev i sovremennost. Pp. 99-106. Moscow. 17. Rashkovskij, E.B. (2018). Philosophical poetology Vl. Solovyova. Solov'evskie issledovaniya, 4(60), 11-26. 18. Sarycheva, K. (2016). Perception of F.I. Tyutchev and A.A. Fet in Russian literary criticism of the 1870s–1900s. Tartu: Tartuskij un-t. 19. Skabichevskij, A.M. (1896). Curiosities and absurdities of young criticism. Novoe slovo, 9, 176-197. 20. Solov'ev, V.S. (1991). Philosophy of art and literary criticism. Moscow: Iskusstvo. 21. Secret of the Night. (2008). Foreign Russia and Tyutchev: from the heritage of Russian emigration. Edited by V.V. Kozhinov. Moscow: Russkij mir, Zhizn' i smysl.
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