Opposition Political Youth Associations in Russia: Modern History

Mikheeva Vitalina Vladimirovna ORCID: 0000-0003-0876-338X PhD in History Associate Professor, Department of Fundamental Legal and Socio-Humanitarian Disciplines, Moscow Financial and Industrial University "Synergy" 111123, Russia, Moscow region, Moscow, ul. Enthusiasts, 742 vitalinm7@mail.ru Other publications by this author

Introduction In the early 1990s, a transformation of the political system took place in our country.

New government structures and public institutions have emerged, and civil society institutions are gradually beginning to form.  Young people get rid of dogmas, mandatory adherence to official ideology, change their perception of reality, there is an active opposition of young people, who begin to act actively already in the conditions of the events of 1991-1993. By the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s, the process of institutionalization of youth associations is being completed.

    Currently, Russian political youth associations are divided according to their political views into several main groups, as well as political parties — pro-government and opposition.

    Studying the history of opposition political youth associations in Russia will allow us to comprehend the history of youth movements in our country as a whole, which already looks quite nonlinear today, and in the future, and predict the situation.

Review     

Starting with the philosophers of antiquity, such thinkers as Aristotle ^[1], N. Machiavelli ^[2], B. Spinoza ^[3], J. Locke ^[4], V. Paretto ^[5] tried to solve the issue of political opposition as a subject of the political process in their works,  Duverger M ^[6] and many others.

      Nowadays, one of the clearest definitions of the opposition belongs to the scientist and public figure G. V. Saenko. The opposition is "a politically organized part of society, a set of political parties, movements and organizations that express the interests of those of its social groups and strata that are fully or partially opposed to the political course pursued by the ruling party or the political regime as a whole, are excluded to some extent from the opportunity to participate in the development of important decisions for society and aspiring to realize the interests of "their" social base by winning state power and participating in it" ^{[7, p. 22]}.

     The political activity of young people is a sacramental theme for Russian historiography.  The Soviet heritage has a huge number of works devoted to the activities, forms and methods of work of the Komsomol, the problem of youth in the revolutionary movement of Russia and other diverse issues. The tradition of studying the youth movement was revived in our country in the late 1990s. At this time, a large number of works appeared on various aspects of the Komsomol's life — its essence ^[8], the situation in the state ^[9], the state during the years of perestroika, etc. ^[10].

    In the 1990s, outstanding Russian philosophers and sociologists - I. M. Ilyinsky ^[11], V. I. Chuprov ^[12], V. A. Lukov ^[103] and others studied the development of the youth social movement. Their works are devoted to the phenomenon of youth organization itself, forms of youth activity, trends in the development of the youth movement and other topical issues.

      At the same time, youth organizations become the subject of numerous dissertation studies. However, their authors prefer issues related to the political process in modern Russia, almost completely ignoring the process of creation and activity of youth public associations. Thus, with a significant amount of political science and sociological research, there is a shortage of historical works, which leads to insufficient elaboration of this topic in the historical context.

The main part Traditionally, in Soviet Russia, the government exerted a controlling influence on the youth, and the youth acted as a resource for the authorities.

 After the liquidation of the CPSU monopoly on power in 1990 and the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the process of modifications of the political system of the state is launched. The country is experiencing a surge in the democratic movement, and at the same time – the crisis of the Komsomol. In these conditions, political youth associations of Russia are born. Youth opposition is becoming a natural element of the domestic political system.

     Political youth associations are usually understood as a voluntary, self-governing public association operating in the form of a public organization or a public movement created on the initiative of citizens who have reached the age of 14, united on the basis of the ideology of a certain political party, for the implementation of the goals specified in the charter of this youth association ^[5].

     From 1991 until 2000, the opposition movement in Russia was associated primarily with the political forces of the left spectrum. In the early 1990s, there was no unity in the Communist camp. But despite this, as well as the loss of popularity of communist ideas in the first years after the collapse of the USSR, in the mid-1990s Communists again became influential participants in the political process of Russia. The leading youth forces of the left spectrum were: "The Russian Communist Youth Union" (until 1996 it cooperated with the "Russian Communist Workers' Party", and from 1996 to 1999 it was the youth support of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation); "The Revolutionary Communist Youth Union (Bolsheviks)"; "The Russian Agrarian Youth Union", which was a party youth organization of the "Agrarian Party of Russia". These associations were dependent on political parties and acted in their interests. The ultra-leftists had radical views, therefore they called for a complete change in the existing structure of the state. The more moderate communist and socialist parties and their youth associations waged a political struggle within the framework of legislation. The Russian Communist Youth Union and the Russian Agrarian Youth Union were in close contact with the Duma parties, so they acted more restrained, and in some matters they cooperated with the authorities.

     In the late 1990s, attention to young people is increasing. This was due to the preparations for the elections of the new parliament and the head of state. In this process, an emphasis was placed on young people. Opposition parties were looking for allies, which led to the reformatting of political parties and blocs. In this regard, youth associations are also being restructured. Some youth associations stay with their parties, others find other trustees.

    At the beginning of the two thousandth, the Communist Party remained the most influential and "left wing" party in the Russian Federation. After the termination of cooperation with the Revolutionary Communist Youth Union, the Communist Party initiates the creation of a new youth organization. On February 20, 1999, the "Union of Communist Youth of the Russian Federation" was established in Moscow. This association has become the new youth wing of the Communist Party. Numerous goals and objectives of the association were outlined. Among them, we note the organizational and ideological association of young people who speak from leftist and patriotic positions; propaganda of the need for a socialist path of development for Russia; the struggle for the destruction of all forms of exploitation; the struggle for the creation of a union state uniting the peoples of Russia with their fraternal peoples, and others. To implement these tasks, the Union launched an active activity aimed at developing a network of local and primary branches of the SCM, organizing meetings, rallies, picketing in order to express their opinions on topical issues, participated in the election campaign.

       In 2004, as a result of internal disagreements between the leaders of the SCM of the Russian Federation and the Communist Party, the Union of Communist Youth of the Russian Federation split into two parts. One remained with the Communist Party, and the second joined the established in the fall of 2004. The All-Russian Communist Party of the Future. That part of the Union of Communist Youth of the Russian Federation, which remained under the Communist Party in subsequent years, was one of the leading and influential youth associations in Russia. On February 5, 2011 in Moscow, the SCM was renamed the Leninist Communist Youth Union of the Russian Federation. According to the Charter, the LKSM of the Russian Federation is an all-Russian public organization, legally independent of any political parties, but adheres to the ideas of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation.  The organization has designated itself as the successor of the Komsomol. Her activities had different forms and directions. Special attention was paid to educational work and the promotion of socialist values. The LKSM of the Russian Federation participated in the implementation of numerous projects, for example, "The Banner of our Victory", "Land of Talents", "The Legacy of the Winners", the Internet project "Lenin Komsomol Radio", contributed to the All-Russian Educational Forum "Territory of Meanings", the XIX World Festival of Youth and Students in Sochi and much more. 

     One of the most radical youth associations of the left sector is the "Vanguard of the Red Youth". This organization was established in May 1999 as the youth wing of the political party "Labor Russia". The stated goals of the organization were: the restoration of the USSR within the borders of 1945, the reconstruction of Soviet power and socialism, the destruction of private property. Along with other leftist forces, AKM was at the origin of the tradition of annual youth marches "Anti-Capitalism". The members of the association were distinguished by categorical judgments and radical actions. In the spring of 2004, as a result of a prolonged crisis within the organization, the AKM split. Two youth organizations were formed: "Vanguard of Red Youth" — an independent organization that departed from "Labor Russia" and "Vanguard of Red Youth — Labor Russia" — an organization that continued cooperation with "Labor Russia". After the split with the "Labor Russia" part did not have significant weight in the youth environment and the political process, and the independent part of the Vanguard of the red youth turned from a youth organization into a public political association.

    Another ultra-left organization is the "Youth Organization "Revolutionary Communist Youth Union (Bolsheviks)" (RKSM(b)). In the 2000s, the "Revolutionary Communist Youth Union (Bolsheviks)" worked closely with the Russian Communist Workers' Party and was dependent on it. Politics prevailed in the activities of the Revolutionary Communist Youth Union (Bolsheviks). The revolutionary spirit of the organization was quite often manifested in large-scale illegal actions of activists. In this regard, many activists had problems with law enforcement agencies. Some members of the RKSM(b) were convicted of administrative offenses and criminal offenses. As for other areas of work, the RKSM(b) paid much less attention to them. The organization was practically not engaged in public work. In the field of culture, she limited herself to holding concerts after rallies. Occasionally, a meeting of sports camps was held. As a result of excessive radicalism of views and methods of activity, he did not have mass support among the youth. Therefore, the influence of the RKSM (b) on the youth and political life of Russia was not in the scope and scale of their measures, but in the decisiveness and radicality of their actions.

     The Fair Russia Party also has its own youth association. Russian Russian Society was founded in 2006 on the basis of three political forces: the Rodina Party, the Russian Party of Pensioners (RPP) and the Russian Party of Life (RPJ). Even before the unification into a Just Russia, the Russian Party of Life was actively developing and had its own youth branch — The Energy of Life. In the period from 2003 to 2007, the organization established itself as a center-left youth organization with moderate political views, as well as a loyal attitude to the authorities. The Energy of Life declared its main goal to participate in the formation of a unified state approach to youth policy in Russia, as well as the implementation of public protection of the rights and interests of the country's youth. The activity of the "Energy of Life" contributed to the growth of the number of supporters of the organization, which made it quite popular among the youth of Russia, but it failed to become the leader of youth policy during this period. In April 2007, the "Energy of Life" was transformed into a new youth association, called "Victory".

     The successor of the "Energy of Life" All-Russian youth social movement "Victory" was created on April 27, 2007. The organization consisted not only of former members of the "Energy of Life", but also of the youth of these parties that formed the "Just Russia". Pobeda positioned itself as an independent organization, but noted that it is the youth support of A Just Russia. Pobeda focused its activities on social and political projects. Provided social support to young people. She took an active part in political life.

      In the fall of 2009, the youth movement "Victory" was reorganized into the All-Russian Public Youth Organization "Young Socialists of Russia", which united young socialists and social Democrats. The NGO put forward the slogan — "For Justice and Democracy!" In 2016, the organization ceased to exist.

     The Liberal Democratic Party of Russia also has its own youth branches. In particular, these are the "Russian Union of Free Youth" (established in 1998), the "All-Russian Youth Center of the LDPR", since 2010 — the youth branch of the LDPR "Time of the Young" (unofficial name — "Falcons of Zhirinovsky"). These organizations proclaimed the principles of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia as fundamental: the creation of a united Russian nation, dynamic economic development, the guarantee of civil rights and freedoms, and the fair distribution of benefits and opportunities. The range of practical activities is quite extensive and has a political, social, cultural and educational character. 

    The youth branches of the LDPR were party, center-right youth associations. They have become one of the most famous in the modern history of Russia, not so much due to their activities, but due to the odiousness and eccentricity of the party leader - V. Zhirinovsky. Youth branches of the Liberal Democratic Party operate in all regions of the Russian Federation and unite tens of thousands of young people around them, which, of course, influenced the youth, but did not make them decisive in youth policy at the beginning of the XXI century. 

    Since 1993, the opposition liberal democratic forces of the country have been represented by the Yabloko party. In 1995, the party created a youth branch in its structure — the Yabloko — Young Democrats Youth Union.

    The young Democrats see their goals and objectives in ensuring self-realization and professional growth for young people, protecting the rights and freedoms of young people (primarily the right to quality education and work), creating conditions for active participation of young people in society. The Yabloko Youth movement has not noticeably changed its political course during its existence. The organization promotes changes in the state and society through reforms without radical transformations and actions. The organization's activities have different directions. Regional branches of the Yabloko Youth organized and carried out actions and events aimed at combating antisocial phenomena, helped socially vulnerable segments of the population, actively participated in the volunteer movement, paid great attention to educational work, held cultural events for schoolchildren and students. Actively cooperated with a number of Russian universities, organizing seminars, conferences, clubs. The leading activity of the "Youth Apple" is politics. In general, Yabloko actively participates in election campaigns, supporting the Yabloko party.

     In 1999, the political bloc "Union of Right Forces" entered Russian politics. This center-right coalition includes both young Democrats and already experienced Russian politicians. In May 2001, the political bloc of the Union of Right Forces was transformed into a political party. On September 4, 2001, the Moscow Youth Union of Right Forces was created in the structure of the Moscow City organization of the SPS. The creation of the Moscow youth wing of the party was the beginning of the activity of the youth movement of the Union of Right Forces. The Youth Union of Right Forces, like the Youth Yabloko, was a party structural unit that did not have a single federal governing body. The youth branches of the Union of Right Forces were created at the regional 15 branches of the Union of Right Forces and operated independently from each other. The main youth branches of the Union of Right Forces were located in Moscow and St. Petersburg. The activities of the Youth Union of the Right Forces were diverse, aimed at the interests of the SPS party, holding rallies, pickets, demonstrations and other events, the Youth Union of the Right Forces repeatedly engaged in polemics with youth organizations that supported the government. But at the same time he condemned the political forces of the left and far-right spectrum. Categorically condemned communism and fascism. MSPS failed to become a mass organization, its number in the regions was measured in only hundreds. Cooperation with liberals inside Russia was at a low level. In 2008, the Union of Right Forces and the Youth Union of Right Forces were reorganized into new political associations due to the inability to gain public trust.

     The activities of the opposition associations of both the "left" and the liberals were dominated by the political direction. Each of the organizations paid attention to campaigning, especially during the electoral process. In addition, youth associations were active participants in rallies, pickets, marches. Through youth organizations, the parties were able to influence the youth and increase their electorate among the youth.

ConclusionsThe democratic field of the 1990s and the ideological pluralism that prevailed at that time contributed to the quantitative growth of political youth associations.

Among them, a special category consists of opposition political youth associations that emerged during the weakening of the central government. The ideological foundation of such associations was quite diverse. A common feature of all associations is the absence of openly Nazi views. At the same time, radicals are clearly represented in the Russian youth movement. In the mid-1990s, there was a tendency to strengthen youth associations of the left spectrum, who strongly opposed the power of Boris Yeltsin and the new model of Russia's development. But since the beginning of the XXI century, the opposite trend has been observed, youth organizations that were based on communist ideology are losing their positions. For almost all opposition organizations, the main activity was political. Even those associations that paid great attention to social and cultural activities began to actively engage in politics in the early 2000s. However, given the limited tools of their own propaganda, the withdrawal from the political arena of the charismatic leaders of the mother party, youth political associations are gradually being virtualized, becoming less recognizable than pro-government youth organizations.  Until now, the left opposition has the greatest influence among young people and in society, which is oriented towards the communist and socialist ideology, the Soviet past of the country.