Comparative study of the texts on animals and on people in I. A Krylov’s fables

Syui ZHENGYU ORCID: 0000-0003-1879-3881 Postgraduate student, the department of General and Russian Linguistics, the faculty of Philosophy, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Ðîññèÿ, Ìîñêâà, óëèöà Ìèêëóõî-Ìàêëàÿ, 6 xzyu3121@163.com

Introduction

The relevance of the research topic is due to the fact that the description of the current stage of the study of zoomorphic metaphor, its interpretation within the existing picture of the world and the description of productive models of the production of zoonyms is essential for modern linguistics, since the perception and evaluation of zoomorphic metaphor change over time, there is a need to fix the modern view of the originality of zoometaphora, in particular in the works of I. A. Krylova.

Zoomorphic metaphors are a key component in the figurative system of I.A. Krylov's fables. For example, A. Potebnya in his study "Theoretical Poetics" draws an analogy between animal characters and chess pieces, which the "grandmaster" Krylov so skillfully uses. Like figures that have an exact algorithm of moves, like, for example, a horse that walks exclusively with the letter "g", the Krylovsky horse unconditionally performs all the work, except for the path of the eternal worker, he has nothing [5:67]. Such a given trajectory sets the reader up to reveal the specific qualities of the animal in the plot of the fable and can serve as an explanation for many life situations and phenomena [Ibid: 71].

Zoometaphora is based on indirect nomination, on the comparison of character traits and qualities of people and animals. There are associative series fox – cunning, wolf – evil, donkey – stupid, implemented in a fictitious mode. There is a mode of fictitiousness in changing the model "as if ..." when attributing to animals the characteristics of behavior, human qualities. The metaphorical transfer can be based on the degree of value, positive or negative qualities of the prototype, the impressions it creates, or the similarity of functions ^{[6; 7]}.

Zoometaphora has a great evaluative potential [3:76]. Most often, a negative assessment is given with its help, but the dynamism inherent in the metaphorical system as a whole does not allow us to draw an unambiguous conclusion about this. A certain balance between positive and negative connotations remains acceptable. However, it is important to note that there is still no clear advantage in one of the parties. As a rule, positive or negative connotations of zoomorphisms are fixed by the phraseological system of the language ^{[2; 8; 1]}.

In the Russian language picture of the world as a whole, metaphors-zoonyms play a very important role, since they reflect its identity and national orientation. In addition, such metaphors replenish the lexical stock of the language and expand its connotative part. This part of the vocabulary is variable and dynamic in its structure, since it is formed due to the entire denotative system associated with the naming of animals.

The research material is the texts of I.A. Krylov's fables, in which the characters are not only animals that characterize certain individual traits of a person's character or features of human behavior, but also people themselves.

The image of animals in the fables of I.A. Krylov

According to tradition, the author's metaphors-zoonyms prevail in the fable work of I.A. Krylov. Let's turn to the examples of zoometaphors and comment on what meaning the author puts into them, what qualities and characteristics he gives to his characters. The character Wolf appears to the reader of fables as the embodiment of the worst human qualities. He shows and demonstrates those qualities that people are used to hiding not only from others, but also from themselves. For example, in the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb", the Wolf is an absolute tyrant who recognizes nothing but his own desires and interests. His behavior is rude and sometimes defiant. To the Lamb he turns: "impudent", "unfit" [4: 26]. The vocabulary he uses in his speech is reduced, which also demonstrates disregard for the weak.

In the fable "The Wolf in the kennel", the Wolf's resourcefulness and hypocrisy are vividly represented: "Snapping his teeth and bristling his fur, With his Eyes, it seems that he would like to eat everyone <...> He would be dishonored for sheep, - My cunning man set off" [Ibid: 59]. The desire to save his life at any cost forces him to act in this way. Attempts to resolve the situation in another way, he not only does not undertake, he does not even think about it. By nature, he is a bully and a bully, but he tries to pass himself off as a decent and well-behaved animal by any means. Another unsightly quality, so often found in real human life, is revealed by I.A. Krylov in the fable "The Wolf and the Crane". We see a scene in which not only the wolf's ingratitude for saving his life is manifested, but also unfounded accusations on his part against the crane in his ingratitude "You're kidding! – The beast cried treacherous, – You for the work? Oh, You ungrateful one!" [Ibid.: 215].

Greed, the desire to get what you want without difficulty, stupidity are shown in the fables "The Lion and the Wolf", "The Wolf and the Fox". The wolf is so mediocre in his thinking that he cannot influence anyone, even his equal. The fox "caressed the ears" of the Wolf [Ibid.: 136] and left him without dinner. It is important to note here that when drawing images of a fox and a wolf, I.A. Krylov emphasizes their similarity, proximity in position and almost kinship as much as possible. The fox skillfully and effortlessly deceives the Wolf.

The image of a Fox (Fox) is also one of the most frequent in I.A. Krylov's fables, but it is created somewhat differently, it becomes more versatile and rich than the image of a Wolf. The fox is very smart, inventive, cunning and sometimes crafty, very enterprising. She has a unique talent for easily establishing contact with the interlocutor, gaining trust and getting everything she wants. Her main weapon is flattery. In the fable "The Crow and the Fox" she appears to the reader as a real "cheat" [Ibid: 136]. The fox can also be ironic, mocking other characters. So in the fable "The Fox and the Donkey" she laughs at the stupidity of the Donkey and his naivety, "low souls" [Ibid: 215].

The fox in a new image, a new role appears in the fable "The Good Fox". First we hear her talk about kindness and mercy, about the importance of taking care of the weak and needy: "How can one not suffer, seeing these little ones; And whose heart will not ache about them" [Ibid: 215]. But everything changes when it becomes unprofitable for her. Thus, by putting the characters of the fable in an unnatural situation for them, the author strengthens their true essence, which will still manifest itself. And the exemplary situation when a fox is thinking about high things, a wolf is tending sheep or a donkey is guarding a vegetable garden disappears when the characters become themselves. The reception of contrast enhances the characters.

The fox is an image that embodies numerous features characteristic of adaptable people. They are always resourceful, they know how to turn any situation in their direction, "get away with it" and get their own benefit.

   The lion as a symbol of power, sovereignty and status, is endowed with special features. He is in charge, he controls the forest kingdom and, thanks to his great strength, keeps everyone else in fear. He lacks such qualities as compassion, empathy, empathy. Leo is a dictator and a tyrant, his aspirations are aimed only at increasing his own influence and expanding his power. It is this "strong in rights" that we see him in the fables "The Lion and the Leopard" [Ibid: 49].

More often than others in the fables of I.A. Krylov we meet wild animals, because their habits are most obvious to people. They are free, absolutely independent and not amenable to home education. However, in the fables of I.A. Krylov there are also images of domestic animals.

For example, I.A. Krylov reveals the image of a Dog in a completely unusual and atypical way. We see this animal from a completely different angle. If we talk about the linguistic picture of the world, in which a certain cultural code is fixed, then the Dog is represented in it precisely as a human friend, an animal intelligent, brave, empathic. This code is based on qualities such as kindness and loyalty to his master. But the fabulist himself decides not to support this stereotypical image and presents it differently.

If a Dog is kind and faithful, then her friendship is a kind of standard, a yardstick for everyone else. However, in the fable "Dog Friendship" we see that the agreement on a real, sincere friendship is only an illusion that disappears immediately when the slightest reason appears. The cook throws a bone "to their misfortune from the kitchen," and the dogs immediately forget about the harmony in the relationship: "Here are new friends rushing to her: Where did the advice and the mood go? My Orestes is fighting with Pylades, – Only the shreds fly up" [Ibid.: 55].

In the fable "The Elephant and the Pug", a small dog is endowed with a quarrelsome and quarrelsome character, and in the fable "Two Dogs" it is represented by a wonderful adaptor at all. Living in a manor house, surrounded by coziness and comfort, she forgets about pride, self-respect, her own destiny, adapts and sees her service only in walking in front of her master on her hind legs.

The donkey is another image that is often found in the fables of I.A. Krylov. Stupidity is the main feature of the Donkey. He is completely stupid and harmless: "The Donkey and the Nightingale" ("it's a pity that he is unfamiliar / You are with our rooster" [Ibid: 89], then you could learn to sing better), "Donkey" ("master" [Ibid: 301], "noble gentleman" [Ibid], "grandee" Donkey imagines himself [Ibid]), "Donkey and Man" ("The donkey had the most honest rules" [Ibid.]).

Sheep also duplicate donkey qualities, but in addition to stupidity and inoffensiveness, I.A. Krylov emphasizes their absolute lack of independence. Sheep are deprived of an independent opinion, they do not know how to think and all of them are absolutely disenfranchised. That is why in all the fables we see them as a herd. A person is also characterized by this trait – to follow the majority, constantly look back at public opinion and literally dissolve into the crowd – to lose his "I", his personality. In the fables "The Wolf and the Lamb" and "The Snake and the Sheep", the lambs show resistance and try to object to opponents: "Oh, what am I to blame for?" [Ibid: 26] ("The Wolf and the Lamb"), "What have I done to you?" [Ibid: 255] ("The Snake and the Lamb Sheep"). But their attempts are unsuccessful. The system turns out to be stronger.

So, we can conclude that through a variety of zoomorphic images and metaphors, I.A. Krylov accurately conveys the shades of human character in all their versatility and heterogeneity. In addition, he represents the hierarchy of society with a variety of inherent features. The reader easily reconstructs the analogy drawn between kings and lions, sees the environment of power represented through the images of wolves, foxes and bears, and also sees the "little man" in the images of sheep and lambs. So allegorically Krylov builds a social hierarchy. But he does not deprive her of her own value.

Comparison of texts of I.A. Krylov's fables about animals with fables

about people

A distinctive feature of the fable creativity of I.A. Krylov is the selection of characters. As a rule, animals appear here, exposing certain character traits or features of human behavior. However, there are many fables with characters whose prototypes are the people themselves.

I.A. Krylov is not limited to any one social group, choosing characters for his fables. Its purpose is to reflect life and its imperfections, weaknesses in all its manifestations. His characters are representatives of the upper class ? the rich, merchants, nobles, nobles, tax collectors, knights and gentlemen, and the lower class ? peasants, workers, for example, a miller, a fisherman, a cabman, etc., scientists, educated people: a philosopher, a writer, a sage, an old man, and stupid, believers who adhere to moral rules and the godless, sinners, etc.

  All these characters are endowed with individuality, special characters, but they also have typical national traits. Even the characters of those fables that are not absolutely author's or represent a reworking of La Fontaine's fables also carry bright features of the Russian national character. Representatives of the peasantry and working professions are opposed to nobles and merchants, nobles and gentlemen, like sheep and wolves, foxes and donkeys are opposed to each other – they are all victims of a rigid autocratic regime, senseless and merciless, from the oppression of which, according to the author, it is not possible to get rid of.

I.A. Krylov's fables are characterized not only by irony, but often the author turns to a harsher form of criticism – satire. This orientation is clearly manifested in fables, the characters of which are peasants, merchants and nobles.

  The peasant is a victim of serfdom, so the texts of I.A. Krylov's fables, the characters of which are peasants, are imbued with sympathy and compassion. The peasants are poor, intimidated and timid. Their image in terms of emotionality of description, as well as in general mood, is similar to the description of sheep and lambs. The peasants are hardworking, simple, have a lively mind and ingenuity. The texts of the fables emphasize the importance of their work for the whole society, and not just for themselves.

  A simple man, accustomed to work and who has seen real life, has a flexible mind and is focused on moral family values. In the fable "The Peasant and the Snake", He will not agree to let a snake into the house, even if it is "kinder than all snakes"[Ibid.: 110]. Moreover, he won't let her near his children: "And to hell with it, even the best snake won't do." Such a moral is deduced by the author, addressing the fathers: "Fathers, do you understand what I am fighting for here?.." [Ibid.].

  The triumph of a lively, practical mind over pseudo-education was reflected in the fable "The Gardener and the Philosopher". Science strives for new trends, it no longer has time to delve into the origins and study the issue in detail. Thus, the philosopher, flaunting his rich knowledge in front of the gardener: "He read, wrote out, inquired, And rummaged in books and in ridges, From morning to evening in labors. Barely with one job sweet, A little on the ridges just that will rise. He will find news in magazines — He will dig through everything, transplant / In a new way and a sample" [Ibid: 110]. But in the end he turned out to be "without cucumbers" [Ibid.]. The gardener, who did not neglect true science and the long-term experience of other people, believes that "Diligence, skill, hands: These are all my sciences here; God gives me bread with them" [Ibid.: 109].

In many fables, the peasant evokes the author's sympathy and compassion. However, in some texts his image is revealed from the negative side. As a rule, this happens in the same cases when the usual positive images of animals become negative, for example, someone begins to claim someone else's place. Knowing your place and being able to do what you are good at and what you understand is a worthy trait that is especially appreciated by I.A. Krylov. Performing the role of the headman or another role, which is usually occupied by people of higher social status in relation to the peasant, the peasant himself receives disapproval and ridicule from the author. Such a role is assumed by the peasant in the fable "The Peasant and the Fox". He no longer needs a smart horse, he only needs her to "drive him, but to obey the whip" [Ibid.: 304]. In this context, the peasant is not the embodiment of his own social role, but appears as a link of another level. It doesn't matter to him what was key for him when he was in his place: now he doesn't care about the mind, his own opinion, feelings of the lower, now he appreciates timidity and submission. In return for this, he is ready to cover only some of the needs of those below his status. Such a context is present only in some fables, more often the peasant appears as a positive character deprived of benefits. Peasant life is hard, clothes and food are scarce, simple, monotonous in the fable "Bulat": "My peasant planted a stalk on a blade / And began to tear with Bulat in the forest on bast shoes, / And at home, easily, splinter them; / Then the branches at the fence, then the branches cut off / Or to cut the stamens to the garden" [Ibid.: 296]. When depicting peasants, I.A. Krylov fully relies on folk culture, taking into account all its features. The peasant is the embodiment of a special village culture, in the area of which urban culture does not penetrate.

Unlike fables, the characters of which are animals, fables in which people act have a broader historical or event context. For example, the fable "The Peasant and Death" depicts the horror of the life of all peasants in Russia in the era of serfdom. Existence itself, survival for them becomes a difficult, sometimes impossible task: "An old man, dried up all from need and labor, / Dragged himself slowly to his smoky shack, /Groaning and groaning under the heavy burden of firewood" [Peasant and death]. The words and thoughts of the old man in this fable are not personified, they sound like a chorus of voices of all serfs: "Where am I poor, my God! / I need everything; besides, my wife and children, / And there is poll, boyarism, rent... / And was it ever in the world / At least one joyful day for me?" [Ibid.].

Fables in which people act, not in the image of the authorities and peasants, for example, confront each other like wolves and sheep; they are more dramatic and emotional in their content. The position of a person is conveyed by I.A. Krylov very realistically. The details of the description of everyday life speak of the hopelessness and hopelessness of waiting for changes, the description of the appearance of a peasant – about exhaustion and exhaustion from constant need and worries, the repetition of the same actions – about their infertility and uselessness. The peasants are in complete bondage, which suffocates them. For example, in the fable "The Peasant and Death", pressure is exerted from all sides ("poll" – obligations (bondage) to the state, "boyarism, rent" – to the landowner): the old man "sighed and thought to himself: "Where am I poor, my God! I need everything; besides, my wife and children, And there is poll, boyarism, rent… And did it ever turn out in the world / At least one joyful day for me?" / In such despondency, on his blaming fate, he calls death: it is not far off, But behind us" [Ibid: 176]. Russian Russian linguoculture's image of a peasant, oppressed, placed in the most difficult conditions, surviving, living in constant labor and poverty is the image of a typical Russian peasant who has developed in Russian linguoculture.

In the fable work of I.A. Krylov there are texts in which the life and life of the opposite class – gentlemen - are presented in detail. They are endowed with unlimited power in their estates, their behavior can be characterized by such words as waywardness, capriciousness, tyranny and even in some cases – inhumanity. This is not a portrait of a specific person, it is a whole social type. What does such a typical nobleman do? In the fable "The Nobleman", he drinks, eats, sleeps and signs everything that the secretary gives him, without analyzing and without delving into the essence of the issue [Ibid: 331]. There will be no punishment for such behavior, because the judges match the gentlemen. "Yesterday I was in court and saw the judge there: / Well, it seems that he should be in paradise!" [Ibid.] Judges have the same set of qualities as the master class, there is no need to seek justice anymore.

The lord's way of life is adjusted, everything is always done perfectly and on time. Servants work tirelessly for the masters. In the fable "The Mistress and the two maids" the reader sees what a hard and thankless work goes to the servants. Always dissatisfied, rude and wayward mistress makes them spin day and night, and if she doesn't like something, she "slaps" and "warms up with a stick" [Ibid: 170]. It is impossible to disobey the mistress.

As in the existing saying "the well–fed does not understand the hungry", so life - they do not understand each other: in the fable "Fortune and the Beggar", the beggar does not understand how it is possible "That people who live in rich chambers / Are up to their necks in gold, in contentment and sweets, / No matter how their pockets stuffed, / Not yet full!" [Ibid.: 192]. But the author does not unequivocally refer to the "poor beggar." He could get rich by taking as much money from fortune as he could carry. But greed and greed let him down. The purse was torn, the money turned to dust, and "The beggar still remained a beggar" [Ibid.]

I.A. Krylov's fables about people reveal important social problems. They are often built on the contrast of extreme poverty and luxury inherent in different classes of society. The zoonyms that accompany the poor and the rich are also changing, their nominations are changing. In the fable "Two Dogs", a peasant has a dog Barbos, "who diligently carried out the master's service," but he says: "I live as before: I endure both cold and hunger, And, saving the master's house, I sleep here under the fence and get wet in the rain; And if I bark at the wrong time, Then I take beatings" [Ibid.: 270]. And in the manor house there is a lapdog Zhuzhu – a dog that sits "on a soft down pillow, on the window", lives "in contentment and kindness, And eats and drinks on silver" and can "walk on its hind legs" [Ibid.].

For I.A. Krylov, the topic of human-animal interaction is also important. According to the texts of the fables, one can observe how the characteristics of a person change when a submissive, defenseless animal is subordinate to him. So, in the fable "The Fly and the road", the Russian landowner's life is described in detail. The reader finds the landowner's family on the road. A gentleman with his wife, son, daughter and their teacher are accompanied by a coachman and a footman. The weather is hot, sultry, sandy broken road leads uphill. To please the master, the coachman and the footman torture the horses. Another faithful companion accompanies the procession – a fly, who decided that they could not cope without her help. "Where are there many people in the world / Who want to drag themselves everywhere / And they like to bother where they are not asked at all" [Ibid: 124].

The lord's life is depicted as immoral: "The teacher and the lady whisper in silence; / The master himself, forgetting how he is needed for order, / Went with the maid to the forest to look for mushrooms for dinner ...", and the servants "talk nonsense" [Ibid.].

So, fables about people and with human actors are not sketches that expose vices, but whole realistic canvases depicting Russian life, way of life and customs. The whole epoch is reflected in the fables of I.A. Krylov. In a concise form, all the inconsistencies, interests, problems and needs of the time collide.

Conclusion

I.A. Krylov is a great master of words, a reformer of the fable genre, who managed to create quite realistic, albeit metaphorical images and embody in them the multifaceted features of human character.

In most fables, the actors are animals. Based on their characters and habits, the fabulist creates many vivid zoometaphors: he correlates the well-known habits and morals of animals with the actions and characters of people. The animals were selected according to the principle of proximity to the folk epic, fairy tales and epics: in fables, only animals whose ideas about habits are deeply entrenched in the stereotypical representation of the people codified in the Russian national picture of the world work. Obviously, a number of characteristics are universal, because they are reflected in fables from the time of Aesop and La Fontaine in the Russian fables of I.A. Krylov and preserve the tradition of using zoometaphores.

The character possessed by the animal characters in the fable reveals the character of the people themselves, who not only form society, but also determine the principles of its functioning. Deciphering these metaphors, the reader imagines real types of people, sees others and himself in them. And the frequency of using certain images only indicates the relevance of the problems and genuine interest in them on the part of the author. The most acute social problems are depicted satirically. I.A. Krylov creates real, typical, reflecting reality characters, generalizing the whole situation in which the action takes place. And these characters exist beyond temporal and spatial boundaries.

In the fables of I.A. Krylov, people themselves become characters, but the image of a person in comparison with the image of an animal significantly expands. A person carries traits typical of a national character. The plots of fables, as a rule, are timeless in nature due to the breadth of the historical context, the prevalence of characters and the depth of psychologism.