The peculiarities of the keyboard accompaniment ad libitum and General Bass in the light of the formation of the German-Austrian concertmaster school

Kalitzky Vitaly Valer'evich PhD in Philosophy Professor of the Department of Instrumental Performance at Russian State Specialized Academy of Arts 121165, Russia, g. Moscow, pr-d Rezervnyi, 12 kalitzky@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

Reconstructing the initial stage of the formation of the concertmaster school in Germany and Austria is a very difficult task. The Germans, despite their genetic propensity to preserve, systematize and take care of any kind of information that has at least some relation to their history and culture, have for a long time been very dismissive of representatives of professions engaged in joint music in one form or another. This is evidenced not only by the almost complete absence of names of German keyboard players who focused their attention on the ensemble work of the art of the general bass in the 17th - mid–18th centuries, but also concert pianists of the 19th century. The reasons for this phenomenon will be discussed below.

The history of the formation of the concertmaster school in Germany and Austria can be traced back to the 15th century. The art of collaborative music making in the Renaissance differed from medieval culture, primarily in the communicative and functional aspect, as M. A. Saponov writes: "The new ideals of vocal studies ("strict style"), fluid rhythmics are also promoted by the new ideal of integrity, motivic unity (imitation technique), spatial-register completeness and isolation. And the hierarchical principle of the ratio of voices is replaced by a spatial one, as evidenced by the designations: bassus, altus, supeirus (sopranus), that is, low, high, upper, are already spatial categories that characterize musical performances of the Renaissance" ^{[1, pp. 22-23]}. In this vein, collaborative music making developed in Germany, based on the principles of creative freedom, both in the choice of the theme of compositions and in the forms of its performing existence.

The Book about the Courtier by B. Castiglione, who lived at the court of the Duke of Urbino, published in 1518, allows you to immerse yourself in the world of free music making of the Renaissance. This edition presents sketches of the court atmosphere of that time, where an important place is occupied by discussions about secular music of that time. Discussing the presence of certain qualities that a nobleman should possess, the author says the following: "Know that a person cannot be a courtier if he is not a musician, does not know how to read music from a sheet and does not know anything about various instruments. <...>" [cit. according to: 2, p. 27]. Moreover, V. P. Shestakov argues that in Germany of the XV century there were ideas about the difference in approaches to the performance of solo and ensemble works, based on the following statement by B. Castiglione that "during joint singing <...> one helps the other" ^{[3, p. 524]}.

The gradual formation of the perception of compositional creativity and performance, as well as the birth of a listening audience as a separate component of musical art, has also become a very important phenomenon. Since the Renaissance, a model of the existence of a musical work has matured: creation (composer) – performance (performer) – perception (audience).

Based on archival documents, treatises and manuscripts of outstanding masters of that time, we will attempt to remove the "veil of secrecy" from the question of its "genome" – the essential provisions formed during the birth of professional joint performance with the participation of keyboard instruments in Germany and Austria. Its development is directly related to the appearance in the XV century of a new type of instrumental texture – ad libitum (Latin – optional, to taste). An important role in this process was played by the emerging secular culture, which, among other genres, intensified the emergence of various forms of instrumental music. Ensembles, in which musical instruments could be freely replaced by one another, became one of the most popular types of music making. This is explained by the following reasons. Firstly, the toolkit itself developed intensively during the Renaissance; not only its constructive capabilities changed, but also the ways of playing. Secondly, the timbral characteristics of the instruments did not yet have such fundamental importance as in subsequent periods of European music. Thirdly, there was no clear division into "composer" and "performer". Music was composed and played by musicians alone, who, moreover, were often the first theorists to record their personal experiences in tablatures and treatises (this will be discussed below).

A similar approach was used in the instrumental accompaniment of one particular composition. It could be performed on different instruments, in variant textured and timbre-coloristic solutions. Thus, an atmosphere of freedom and improvisation prevailed in musical creativity, the results of which in the vast majority of cases were not recorded by notation on paper. Accordingly, the names of musicians who were masters of ad libitum accompaniment also disappeared into oblivion. This largely explains the lack of information about them.

However, in German archival sources we managed to find some information about them, as well as the peculiarities of their work. Consideration of individual names will allow us to identify the main characteristics of their creative methods in the process of joint performance, as well as draw conclusions about the peculiarities of keyboard accompaniment ad libitum in Germany and Austria, which, contrary to popular opinion, was not exclusively free improvisation.

Konrad Pauman (c. 1415-1473) was a composer, an outstanding organist and clavierist, teacher, librettist, and one of the first theorists of keyboard and organ art. Being blind from birth, he could not independently record his complex polyphonic compositions, among which more than two hundred were instrumental ensembles and only one vocal ensemble. Due to his physical illness, he achieved perfection in the art of organ and keyboard improvisation, as evidenced by the memoirs of his contemporary preserved in the Munich city archive: "<...> After the Sunday service, Konrad Pauman delighted the parishioners with his virtuoso improvisation, which filled the cathedral. Moreover, several hundred people could not get inside [the cathedral – VK] and listened to it from the street. <...> As before, other musicians participated in his improvisations, which he skillfully accompanied with his playing – brilliant and at the same time, not interrupting, but helping to express their feelings to other musicians. <...> Probably, there is no other such improviser and leader of the ensemble in our time. <…>» ^[4]. According to other musicians, Pauman always adheres to expressive improvisational playing in the art of accompaniment. <...> which at the same time is metrically accurate and thoughtful. He doesn't play by himself, he doesn't stay away, just listening to his partners" [ibid.]. One can only marvel at K. Pauman's dedication in achieving the perfection of his skills.

Arnolt Schlick (1460-1525) was a composer, clavierist, organist and organ builder. He continues the performing traditions of K. Pauman. He was also blind from birth, which did not prevent him from becoming an outstanding keyboard player, organist, performing arts theorist, as well as a leading organ builder of the time. He achieved perfection in the art of instrumental accompaniment, as evidenced by an entry in the "Book of Events" for 1497, kept in the church archive of the city of Heidelberg: "Schlick, as usual, first improvised himself, and then performed with Judenkunig [German lutenist Hans Judenkunig (1449-1526) – V. K.] his intabulations "My Love is gone""I'm thinking of you", "My sweet Philip"<…>. There is nothing more beautiful than listening to these songs. Judenkunig is a subtle, wonderful lutenist, but his playing would not be so beautiful if it were not for improvisations accompanied by Schlick. He has no equal in this art. He knows how to accompany a soloist so unsurpassably, playing harmonies and voices on the harpsichord masterfully and at the same time not intrusively" ^[5].

Hans Buchner (1483-1538) was a composer, organist, organ builder, and keyboard player. Along with K. Pauman and A. Schlick, he is an outstanding ad libitum accompanist of his time. A special creative style of G. Buchner, an ensemble player, was the ability to improvise accompanied by singers and instrumentalists, using various polyphonic techniques of the time, including the achievements of the Dutch polyphonic school. We find confirmation of this in the archival collections of the city of Heidelberg, where G. Buchner was invited to the enthronement of the new organ. Among the festive events on this occasion, performances by outstanding organists were held, who, among other things, competed in the art of improvisation accompanied by ad libitum. The audience was particularly delighted with the art of G. Buchner, who "played variations on his own themes with a lutenist, a flutist and a tenor. And if the musicians with whom he improvised performed their parts, sticking to the same melody, but he [G. Buechner – V. K.] impressed everyone with his ability to make simple motifs by playing the clavichord. <...> the most complex and skillful fugues" ^[5].

From the examples presented, it can be seen that the ad libitum accompaniment in the hands of outstanding masters of that time made the performance of music not only attractive to the ear through free improvisation. In the art of such accompaniment, each piano player had his own secrets and techniques. Some used the textured features of the claviers of that time, achieving a surround sound effect in combination with other instruments. Others used the principles of motivational development, emphasized rhythmic pulsation, and the means of agogy. Still others created improvisations in the polyphonic genres that prevailed at that time, impressing the audience with the ability to instantly transform melodic voices in an ensemble into a fugue.

An important proof of not just a free, but a very thoughtful approach to the performance of ensemble compositions are the manuscripts, treatises and tablatures of outstanding German and Austrian masters of keyboard accompaniment ad libitum, which have not yet been translated into Russian. Let us consider the theoretical works of K. Pauman and A. Schlick in the context of the issues we are investigating.

K. Pauman's tablature "Fundamentum organisandi" ("Fundamentals of Organ Art", 1452) [see for more details: 6, p. 66], which includes methodological guidelines on the notation and polyphonic composition of vocal and instrumental music, also reveals various ways of performing spiritual and secular song melodies in an improvisational manner ad libitum. In particular, the author notes in the introduction: "You shouldn't play the accompaniment too cheekily. A musician playing accompaniment should remember that all freedom must be responsible, and expressiveness must come not only from the heart, but also from the mind" ^[7].

Arnolt Schlick published two methodological works, The Mirror of Organ Masters and Organists (1511) and the tablature book Hymns of Praise (1512), in which he outlined his ideas about the art of playing keyboard accompaniment ad libitum. According to him, for successful improvisation as part of an ensemble, a clavier performer must "know counterpoint fluently and be proficient in playing the instrument." <...> The ear of a musician playing with other [performers – V. K.] should pick up the slightest nuances in ornate melodies, which should be maintained harmoniously and naturally" ^[8].

Thus, the archival data and information we have gleaned from the tablatures of K. Pauman and A. Schlick proves the need for a clavierist-ensemble of the Renaissance period in Germany and Austria (in addition to the direct ability to improvise) to have various knowledge about counterpoint, style, genres of music performed, as well as a developed harmonic and melodic ear.

It should be noted that despite the presence of keyboard musicians in Germany and Austria in the XVI–XVII centuries, they nevertheless focused on organ business – performance and pedagogy. This can be explained by the cultural and historical situation prevailing at that time. However, the phenomenon of the rapidly developing European musical theater has also captured the Germans, primarily among high–ranking nobles and dignitaries. An unlimited fascination with a new genre at that time began – opera, the productions of which required the involvement of various musicians, among whom were those who led the production process, conducting rehearsals and learning parts with soloists and choir. These were maestro al cembalo, whose art was intensively developed in Italy. Their performance work with singers was based on the basso continuo approach [see details: 9].

In this regard, it should be noted that the distinction between the concepts of "basso continuo", "General bass" and basso numerato in modern musicology is rather arbitrary. A special feature of basso continuo is the continuity of the development of the bass line, in which pauses were completely absent, while pauses were present in the bass lines of General Bass and basso numerato [see details: 10].

As a way of performing works, basso continuo originated in the 15th century in Italy in the practice of ensemble performance on the organ and harpsichord and was associated with the gradual development of homophony and the use of improvisation. It was an accompaniment in an abbreviated notation: the notes recorded only the lower voice (bass), the numbers indicated harmony, which indicated consonance in the upper voices. The performance of General-Bäß was also intended primarily for collaborative music making. However, unlike basso continuo, it represented a part of the texture that provided harmonic support for the soloist's part. The part itself was deciphered in accordance with the performing capabilities of the piano player.

In the context of this specificity, it is necessary to consider the further development of the German-Austrian concertmaster school, the fundamental foundations of which were reflected in the treatises of the keyboard players of the XVI – XVII centuries.

One of the first works on the art of General Bache in Germany was the "Organ or Keyboard Tablature" by Elias Ammerbach, published in 1571. It is notable for its considerable volume (the manuscript is 226 pages) and an impressive number of exercises and examples of the use of General Bass in solo and ensemble playing. The author, a great expert in the field of joint performance, analyzes and describes various cases of General-Bache application in a joint game. A unique feature of this tablature is the author's indication of the need to "improvise so that the voice of the keyboard merges with the voices of other instruments" ^[11]. But this approach will be intensively used as a fundamentally important one in the XX–XXI centuries by concert pianists performing with representatives of other instrumental specialties, in cases where it becomes necessary to play parallel melodic lines together.

Michael Pretorius (1571-1621), a German composer, organist, clavierist and music theorist, paved the way for the methodical fixation of the principles of General Music. In 1618-1620, his three-volume textbook on the theory and practice of the digital bass "Syntagma musicum" ("The Device of music") ^[12], created in the genre of an encyclopedia, was published. The text of the publication covers all (with the exception of the theory of modern composition) areas of contemporary musical composition and performance, a description of the structure of musical instruments, playing techniques, issues of musical acoustics, forms of sacred and secular music, as well as musical terminology that determined the content of instrumental (prelude, fugue, sonata, fantasy, concert, toccata, sinfonia), vocal (madrigal, motet, canzone) and dance genres (galliard, volta, allemande, courante, giga). Moreover, as L. S. Sidelnikov notes, this treatise dealt not only with the performance characteristics of various musical instruments, but also with "their use in solo, ensemble and orchestral practice" ^[13]. In particular, M. Pretorius focuses on the need for a keyboard player "to be able to improvise, but to improvise in such a way that any musician can understand him. To do this, you should limit your desires and keep melodies in your memory. Then unity can be achieved" ^[12].

Andreas Werkmeister (1645-1706), organist, clavierist, composer, author of the theory of good temperament, in his treatise "Musical temperament, or an accurate and authentic mathematical instruction on how to tune a clavier well with the help of a monochord, and especially organs, positives, regals, spinets, and the like [instruments – V. K.]") ^[16], published in 1691, developed several temperament systems that met the needs of solo and ensemble playing involving the keyboard and organ. In his 1698 work "Necessary Remarks and Rules of the General Bass," A. Werkmeister explained how a clavierist can perform simple counterpoint in joint music making: "One should not try to play all the voices at once [on the clavier – VK]. Such an undertaking can end badly and destroy all performances. To better understand how this should be done, you first need to write out separately the main voice of the counterpoint – the melody [of the solo instrument – VK] and its counter–composition [of the accompanying clavier part - VK]. Only after that can you understand whether you should improvise here" ^[17]. Let us note one common feature of the treatises listed above: they emphasize the need for the integrated development of a clavier musician, including the study of composition, solo and ensemble performance, as well as the basics of pedagogical activity (note that the trend within his specialty and the desire for the practical use of acquired knowledge is leading in the Renaissance and affects not only the field of art, but also science). The treatises note that in order to successfully master the art of ensemble playing, it is necessary to master theory, harmony, counterpoint, composition and improvisation. Note that for a modern concertmaster of the 21st century, these provisions are basic, otherwise mastering the "professional set" is extremely difficult.

K.F.E. Bach can be called a comprehensive researcher of the art of collaborative music making. In his two–part treatise "Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen" ("Experience of the true Art of playing the Clavier"), the first part of which was published in 1753 and the second in 1762,^[18] he devoted an entire chapter to studying the intricacies of ensemble music making. We can read this treatise in a modern translation into Russian, which certainly makes it easier for modern pianists, including concertmasters, to study it. However, we should immediately note that in his treatise K.F.E. Bach does not use the term "Begleiter" (German: accompanist), which indicates the inaccuracy of the translation. This circumstance additionally indicates the inaccuracies that exist so far in understanding the meaning of the professional content of the definitions "concertmaster" and "accompanist" [see details: 19].

In the introduction of the treatise K.-F.-E. Bach talks about the great role that a clavierist plays in the process of performing together.: "Who doesn't know how many demands are placed on the keyboard player. <...> A piano player should be able to compose fantasies of all kinds, as well as improvise a theme given to him according to all the rules of harmony and melody. He should be equally easy to play in all keys, instantly and accurately transpose, and read from a sheet any piece written for both his instrument and another. He needs to master the knowledge of the general bass perfectly. <...> If the bass is not digitized, or, as often happens, there are pauses in it, and therefore some other voice is the basis of harmony, then the keyboard player, in order to give more harmony to the ensemble, should be able to extract the general bass from a multi-line score. Who, finally, is able to list all the requirements that are imposed on the keyboard player!" ^{[20, p. 55]}. From this quote, it becomes clear that the treatise from the very beginning is focused on helping the musician-ensemble work.

K.F.E. Bach recorded the fundamental principles of concertmaster activity: "The fewer performers there are, the finer the accompaniment should be, therefore a solo or solo aria is the best way to judge the merits of an accompanist. <...> the greatest attention should be paid to jointly identify the intentions of the performer of the leading part" ^{[20, p. 56]}, – again, we state one of the basic truths of modern concertmaster performance. In addition, K.F.E. Bach notes not only the performing, but also the psychological skills that such a musician should possess: "<...> the performer, playing quite calmly, will show firmness and noble simplicity of performance, without overshadowing the brilliance of the soloist <...> at a time when the main voice is silent or performs simple notes, the accompanist can always give free rein to a restrained temperament, if the circumstances and nature of the work require it. <...> only with good accompaniment does the work come to life, with poor accompaniment even the best performer loses a lot; it ruins all the beauty of the performance" ^{[20, p. 57]}.

K.-F.-E. Bach argues that the art of performing together with the participation of the piano consists in mutual understanding and quick reaction to the slightest changes in the performing intentions of the partners, arguing that the piano player participating in the ensemble "must remember that not only the success of his performance depends on his composure and artistic concentration, but also the success of the soloist accompanied by him" [cit. according to: 21, p. 66]

K.-F.-E. places great emphasis in his work. Bach emphasizes "the need for an ensemble player to be able to improvise, transpose, and read from a sheet" [cit. according to: 22, p. 11] . An important issue from the point of view of the author of the treatise was the use of melismatics in the art of improvisation. Bach asserts that "jewelry binds notes, enlivens them, gives them, where necessary, special persuasiveness and significance, gives them pleasure and awakens special attention to them. They help to reveal the content of the work" [cit. according to: 23, p. 77]. Decorations were mostly borrowed from vocal music, so it can be argued that the first principles of "singing sound", which have been forming since the birth and development of the piano and piano performance in the 18th century, were laid down more than a century earlier at the stage of the development of claviers and their use as instruments of ensemble improvisation. In this context, the words of M. S. Druskin seem important: "Instrumental music takes over from vocal music the interpretation of ornament as a means of increasing expressiveness, as a kind of oratorical device of excited speech" ^{[24, p. 113]}. But the execution of the decorations implied the taste of the piano player, an understanding of the style and the measure of their use. It is these qualities that have become the basis of the professional set of a modern concertmaster.

Returning to the treatise by K.F.E. Bach, we note that in the chapter "On some subtleties of accompaniment" the author clearly states what a clavierist-ensemblist should be able to do: "<...> understand the work well and build your performance in accordance with the content of the play, the nature of its sonority, the cast, especially the interpretation of the main part, the nature of the instruments or voices, the size of the room, the composition of the audience, etc. With the greatest modesty, he tries to help everyone he accompanies achieve the desired success, even if he surpasses them in his artistic abilities. <...> In addition, he knows how to get into the intentions of the composer and performers; he tries to support and strengthen these intentions. He quickly grasps all the artistic effects, both in relation to the general performing tasks and the accompaniment, since the content of the play requires it. But at the same time, he applies these effects very carefully, so as not to interfere with the intentions of his partners. <..He should not overestimate his scholarship and never forget that a good accompaniment enlivens the performance of a play and that, on the contrary, the best performer loses enormously due to poor accompaniment, because all his artistic intentions are completely distorted, and most importantly, this knocks him out of the artistic state in which he was. In short, sensitive accompaniment requires a good musical soul endowed with reason and good will" [cit. according to: 20, pp. 70-71]

In this regard, it should be noted that at that time there was a widespread practice when a piano player quite often did not receive enough rehearsals before a concert performance. And then there was K.F.E. Bach urged: "Sometimes it is necessary (and not at all shameful) to discuss the performance of a piece with the soloist before the performance, giving him the right to determine the nature of the accompaniment. Some soloists tend to limit the accompanist's independence too much, while some do not. Therefore, it is most reliable to use such a preliminary discussion, since opinions may vary, and the decisive word should belong to the performer of the main party. <...>" [cit. according to: 20, p. 69]. In this context, it is advisable to recall the "cult" of the singer, which was formed with the spread of opera from the 17th century, and in the 18th and early 19th centuries turned into a preferential cultural dominant, which prevented the realization of the importance of the performer of the keyboard part in a vocal-instrumental duet. At the same time, a certain imperfection of the instrument itself and the limited expressive potential played an important role in such an underestimation.

It is impossible to overestimate the "Experience of the true art of playing the piano." The treatise was a fundamental basis not only for the development of methodological thought (we note that J. Adlung ^[25], G. Lelein ^[26], and I.F. Adlung relied on it in many ways. Reichardt ^[27], D. Turk ^[28], J.-A. Hiller ^[29], C. Berni ^[30]), but also for outstanding composers-keyboard players, and then pianists. In particular, J. Haydn said that the work of K. F.E. Bach is "the school of all schools" ^{[31, p. 31]}, and V.A. Mozart states: "He is the father – we are the children. Those of us who do everything right and well have learned it from him" [cit. according to: 32, p. 262]. In this regard, the following case is indicative. In 1801, K. Czerny came to L. van Beethoven to audition. After young Karl performed the program, Beethoven told his father, "The boy is talented, I'm taking him on as a student and I'm going to study with him." <...> Be sure to take out "Versuch..." ["Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen" – V. K.] by Philippe Emanuel Bach so that he can bring this book to the next lesson" [cit. according to: 33, p. 2].

The pedagogy of playing the harpsichord in the 1650s – 1750s developed the main traditions of Baroque organ and keyboard performance, at the same time outlining certain tasks of the art of joint performance. In this context, let us recall I. Matteson's treatise "The Perfect Kapellmeister", in which an attempt was even made to propose methods of teaching a clavier player, considering the question of this musician's awareness of the instruments with which chamber music works are played.

During this period, under the influence of Italian opera practice and its system of preparing performances for productions in Germany and Austria, the national maestro al cembalo culture began to take shape. And if at the initial stage these duties were performed by Italian masters, then by the beginning of the 17th century, these countries began to form their own corps of such musicians. Only a few of their names have survived to this day.

Friedrich Wilhelm Zachau (1663-1712) was a German composer and maestro al cembalo; among his students was G.F. Handel.

Johann Agrell (1701-1765) was a Swedish and German violinist, pianist, conductor, composer, maestro al cembalo. From 1723 to 1746, he was the director of the Kassel Choir Chapel.

Due to the major changes in European politics and, consequently, in thinking in the first half of the 18th century, global transformations in the musical art took place. First of all, in performance, this affected the gradual abandonment of the practice of basso continuo, General Bass and basso numerato, when the clavier part began to be written out in much more detail, and sometimes even assumed precise performance without improvisation. The first such changes occurred in the late Baroque era and are associated with the names of G.F. Handel and J.S. Bach. In interpreting their work, the keyboard player-ensemblist did not need to prove himself as a bright improviser. However, this situation is fully compensated by the fact that J. S. Bach elevated the clavier (due to its advantages over other instruments: the possibility of polyphonic music making, a sufficiently large range for its time, etc.) to a leading rank, and consequently, the figure of the clavierist in the ensemble joint performance process.

Having traced the process of formation of the initial stage of the German-Austrian concertmaster school, we formulate conclusions. This school, in comparison with other national European concertmaster schools, has gone through the longest path of its formation and development. It is based on evolutionary cultural and historical processes related to the transformations of musical aesthetics from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance and the active introduction of ad libitum accompaniment into musical practice. Its features consisted in the fact that each performer could independently choose the type of improvisation, however, the degree of its freedom depended on the choice of the instrument and its expressive capabilities, as well as on the type of improvisation. That is, there was freedom, but its degree was always consistent with the subject and object of improvisation.

General–Bäß, which came into its own in the XVI-XVII centuries in Germany and Austria, prescribed for keyboard musicians involved in joint performance the observance of certain rules, both from a theoretical perspective (playing the correct vocalization, harmonic unity based on the laws of counterpoint, etc.) and in performance. It was during this period that the basic ideas about the tasks of the future concertmaster's specialty were formed, which were recorded by outstanding keyboard composers in numerous treatises. A special merit in this belongs to K.F.E. Bach, who opened a new page not only in the techniques of solo playing, but also in joint performance.