Rumors, Fakes and Fact-checking in Chinese Social Media: The Case of WeChat

Yan Ikhua ORCID: 0000-0001-8209-8192 Postgraduate Student; Department of Mass Communications; P. Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University of Russia Miklukho-Maklaya str., 6, Moscow, 117198, Russia 1042228091@rudn.ru

Grabel'nikov Aleksandr Anatol'evich ORCID: 0000-0003-1415-824X Doctor of History Professor; Department of Mass Communications; P. Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University of Russia Miklukho-Maklaya str., 6, Moscow, 117198, Russia grabelnikov-aa@rudn.ru

introduction

With the development of big data technologies in the digital space, information content and the mechanisms for obtaining it are becoming increasingly important in the media environment. The integration of Chinese social media platforms such as Weibo and WeChat into everyday communication practices has transformed the traditional paradigm of information dissemination: the one-to-many model of mass content distribution has given way to information circulation in microsocial communication clusters, which are becoming fundamental units of media communication, forming the phenomenon of information echo chambers in closed communities. Contrary to early forecasts, the Internet space has not transformed into another media channel, but has acquired the properties of a fundamentally new communication ecosystem. This is a fundamentally new communicative environment that absorbs all previous mass information channels ^{[4, p. 334]}.

According to the Digital 2025 report published by We Are Social in collaboration with the Kepios consulting company, the number of social media users in the world has reached 5.24 billion, which is 4.1% more than in the same period last year ^[19]. By providing information services and increasing the efficiency of information transmission, social media platforms simultaneously create a favorable environment for the spread of Internet rumors, which leads to a variety of forms of their manifestation and methods of dissemination. Disinformation has become particularly widespread on the Internet, namely, in social networks, as there is an uncontrolled appearance of new publications, as well as the problem of timely detection of unreliability of materials ^{[10, p.49]}.

Disinformation content, representing a historically stable communication phenomenon, has undergone a significant transformation in the evolution of human media systems: from oral-speech transmission in traditional societies to viral distribution in the digital media environment and new ecosystems of mass communication. Rumor is a specific type of communication, which is defined as a spontaneous form of information transmission through interpersonal communication channels, as well as an active system of interpretation of events by the mass consciousness in accordance with the prevailing mentality ^{[5, P.13]}. In the age of the Internet, social media has lowered the threshold of access to information, and such negative effects of social networks as "Echo Chambers" and "information bubbles" increase the isolation of social relations in information cocoons ^{[21, p.103]}. Key concepts such as authority and public opinion, truth and visibility, exposure and refutation are intertwined, creating a public opinion with a high degree of uncertainty, in which rumors with even more complex dynamics become an integral part, posing a potential threat to the stability of public order. Rumors are characterized by rapid spread, wide coverage and significant impact ^{[24, P.27]}. Rumors on the Internet are created by both professional and non-professional communicators, moreover, vague, contradictory criteria for the quality and reliability of information on the global network provide significant potential for the functioning of rumors ^{[9, P. 377]}. Such threats to information security as fakes are typical not only for news reports, but also for the entire field of Internet communication ^{[3, p. 637]}. Disinformation content in the digital environment not only significantly disrupts the information order in the online space, but also has a significant deforming effect on the media ecology of society as a whole. Social media actors catalyze the mutation of information falsifications through the retransmission, commenting, and recomposition of content, which greatly enhances the entropy of information dissemination. Interactivity, temporal promptness and depersonalization of the digital environment form a favorable ecosystem context for the viral spread of disinformation. In this regard, there is an urgent scientific and research need for a detailed study of the phenomenology of information falsifications in modern social media, their dissemination patterns and potential mechanisms for neutralizing this issue in aspects of mass communication paradigms, at the level of individual media practices and in the public discursive space.

RUMORS AS A COMMUNICATIVE PHENOMENON: CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

Disinformation as a widespread socio-psychological phenomenon accompanies human society almost from the moment of its institutionalization. The evolutionary transformation from verbal transmission in traditional societies to rapid circulation through digital channels in the modern communicative space demonstrates that the modification of media channels and the intensification of information exchange not only did not neutralize the ecosystem conditions for the generation and spread of information falsifications, but also significantly expanded the range of their discursive influence and social impact. Rumors as an element of the communication system have a number of unique characteristics that allow them to successfully adapt to changes in social reality ^{[8, p.115]}. The emergence and spread of rumors has many causes, being influenced by both individual and collective consciousness, as well as the general social and communication environment.

In the information space of socio-political and socio-economic life of society, the problem of the functioning of rumors, myths and purposeful fictions has existed for a long time ^{[15, p. 157]}. The stability of belief in rumors is a complex phenomenon that is not limited to personal dispositions and is rooted in a social context ^{[11, p.221]}. From the point of view of definition, rumors are classified into two main types: the first is unverified information, not confirmed by official authoritative sources, but potentially reliable; the second is deliberately false information, intentionally distorted or completely fabricated for manipulative purposes."

American social psychologists Gordon Allport and Leo Postman proposed a definition of rumors in 1947: "Rumors are a special type of statements that are usually spread orally among people for whom there are currently no reliable confirmation criteria" p^{[17, p.247]}. From that moment on, rumor research gradually began to evolve. Based on these studies, American scientists Warren Peterson and Noel Gist believed that rumors are unverified statements disseminated privately, related to objects, events, or issues of public interest (Peterson and Gist, 1951). Rumors are understood as statements about events without sufficient grounds to consider them true p^{[18, p.240]}.

Chinese researchers in the field of mass communications in their early works tended to negatively interpret the definition of rumors, considering them unfounded, fabricated lies. According to the concept of the Chinese researcher Guo Qingguan, who considers this phenomenon through the prism of intentionality, rumors are "false information subjectively constructed and purposefully transmitted by a communicator" ^{[20, p.49]}. He notes that the Western term "rumor" refers to widely disseminated reports with an obscure source that can be either true or false. In the Chinese context, the term "rumors" refers to messages with a clearly defined source and false content ^{[22, p.26]}. In his works, Liu Jianming focuses on the correlation between disinformation content and factual data, conceptualizing rumors as "falsified information messages devoid of a reliable factual basis." Hu Yun, Zhou Yuqiong and other researchers propose to decriminalize the Chinese terminological equivalent of the concept of "rumors", reinterpreting it in a context closer to the English-language connotation of the lexeme "rumor", that is, as a neutral information message with an indeterminate degree of reliability. In the context of the mediatization of the communication space, digital forms of information falsifications have acquired additional attributive characteristics. Kuan Wenbo and Wu Xiaoli, using axiological categories, define digital disinformation as content circulating in the online space that is not verified, deliberately distorts factual data, or is completely fabricated with the implicit intention of manipulating the audience. Online rumors in Chinese social media, being a type of rumors, have not lost the main characteristics of rumors; they are called Internet rumors because the process of their publication and dissemination is carried out via the Internet ^[23].

In the process of unreliable circulation, information falsifications can be characterized by a bivalent status: a waiting mode for verification and a waiting mode for analytical interpretation, while at the stage of explication they transform into states of factual confirmation or establishment of a disinformation nature. The dissemination of false information content is determined by two key parameters: relevance and indeterminacy. Relevance determines the degree of correlation of a disinformation message with the interests of the subject of circulation and the target audience; indeterminacy provides semantic ambivalence, creating a favorable discursive space for the proliferation of unreliable information in the continuum between factual reliability and fabrication. The interaction and mutual influence of public opinion and rumors is a multifaceted process. Rumors form public opinion, serve as a kind of basis for it, but public opinion also determines the objects of rumors, in the sense of the importance of the topic for discussion, gives it one or another emotional connotation ^{[7, p.50]}.

Based on the above, it can be stated that rumors are localized in the discursive space between verified truth and absolute falsehood, which indicates an incomplete identity between unreliable content and deliberately false information. Disinformation messages often have a certain confidence gradient in their structure, while content labeled as reliable may implicitly include selective presentation of facts and the deliberate exclusion of significant factual elements. Consequently, the determination of demarcation criteria between disinformation and verified content is transformed into an urgent socio-communicative issue that requires resolution at the institutional level of the media system.

THE ROLE OF FACT-CHECKING AND RUMOR-DEBUNKINGIN MODERN CHINESE MEDIA

The transformational development of modern media technologies, on the one hand, creates new opportunities for communication, and on the other hand, promotes the rapid and hidden spread of fake news. The role of rumors in the media is quite large. Appearing on the global network, rumors can become an instrument of aggressive communicative influence ^{[16, p.36]}. The circulation of modern digital forms of Internet rumors catalyzes transformational processes in the structure of public opinion, stimulates the proliferation of unreliable information constructs, pseudo-social opinions and imitative emotional reactions in the online communicative space, which leads to the destruction of the ontological connection between the virtual and real dimensions of the digital media environment and generates the phenomenon of information contamination. The linguistic representation of events on Internet news feeds of mass media really significantly distorts the real reality, the media image of the event affects the state of linguistic and information security of the entire Internet space and its users ^{[2, P.12]}. Rumor-debunking mechanisms should perform their function in the online space to ensure information and emotional stability.

Fact-checking as a media practice and a new journalistic format forms a special type of network infrastructure. D. V. Sokolova gives a broad definition of fact-checking: "the process of verifying the accuracy of information, audiovisual information, and their correspondence to actual reality, aimed at identifying facts of distortion, including intentional" ^{[13, p. 7]}. Debunking rumors is a process in which rumor-mongering actors publish information that refutes rumors in order to clarify the facts, deny the authenticity of rumors, and reduce their plausibility. Since 2018, various information verification projects have been actively appearing in China. Government-led platforms for refuting rumors, fact-checking projects in traditional media, fact-checking platforms in new media, network groups for voluntary cooperation, as well as intellectual verification platforms at universities and research institutes have been consistently created, which have played an important role in creating a favorable information environment, forming the right guidelines for public opinion, and protecting ideological security and maintenance of social stability. With the continuous development of digital technologies, the transformation of existing methods of information production is taking place. Internet communication has become, first of all, "a source of a peculiar socio-cultural environment, which, in fact, forms the specifics of synergetic network interaction" ^{[1, P.53]}. Fact-checking is developing in parallel with information technology, which determines its technological characteristics that distinguish it from traditional methods of refuting rumors. Nowadays, fact–checking is not a simple technical check of positions and titles, but an in-depth analysis of already published facts, interpretation of meanings ^{[6, p.155]}.

However, there is a dilemma in the practice of managing public opinion: it is easy to spread rumors, but it is difficult to refute them. Media rumor-mongering strategies often prove ineffective or even ineffective. On the one hand, the speed and coverage of the dissemination of refutations are significantly inferior to the spread of rumors themselves; on the other hand, the refutations are not convincing enough, and it is difficult for the media to effectively refute false information. Thus, the effectiveness of rumor-debunking strategies depends on the effectiveness of the dissemination of refuting information. The effectiveness of dissemination mainly refers to the coverage and breadth of the dissemination of refuting information and does not concern the impact on the attitude and behavior of the audience. Impact mainly refers to the degree of influence of refuting information on the views and behavior of the audience, that is, the level of acceptance and recognition by the audience of the refuting information. The problem of disinformation requires not only the identification and analysis of various tools for its dissemination, but also the development of integrated approaches to verifying information ^{[12, p.70]}.

As the main platform for spreading rumors on Chinese social media, WeChat users inevitably encounter misinformation when viewing news content on this platform. WeChat has developed WeChat's special rumor control system in response to the problem of misinformation circulating in the process of publishing content, including official accounts (such as the WeChat Security Center, the Rumor Filter, etc.) and mini-applications integrated with them (for example, the WeChat Rumor Detection Assistant), which include The aggregates form a comprehensive mechanism aimed at curbing the spread of false information. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the effectiveness of the dissemination of refuting information on the WeChat platform and its determining factors from the perspective of mass media.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

As part of this study, a comprehensive methodological toolkit was implemented to analyze cases of rumors recorded in the WeChat Rumor Debunking Assistant mini-application. This approach combines content analysis, linguistic analysis, and automated data processing. At the stage of collecting the material, a specialized Python script was used to extract data from the WeChat Rumor Debunking Assistant application for the period from September 6, 2023 to January 7, 2025. After cleaning and manual rechecking, the final sample was 300 rumor headlines. The data obtained, presented in tabular format, was structured: title, publication date, Internet resource address, and rumor content. Later, Python Pandas and spaCy libraries were used for data processing, data visualization was carried out using the NetworkX library for graph construction and the Matplotlib library for their visualization. The LDA (Latent Dirichlet Allocation) method was used to identify latent thematic structures. The optimal number of thematic clusters (n=6) was determined by analyzing the coherence and perplexity curves of the model. This made it possible to identify the probabilistic distribution of lexemes on identified topics and build a semantic map of the studied discursive field. At the same time, a discursive analysis of the headlines was carried out, highlighting typical rhetorical strategies and linguistic markers of pseudo-authenticity.

THE RESULTS OF THE STUDY

According to the data presented in Table 1, the study revealed a heterogeneous structure of the thematic distribution of rumors in Chinese social media using the example of the WeChat platform. The dominance of healthcare topics (31%) among the analyzed rumors is a significant indicator. This demonstrates that users' perception and assessment of health information is significantly determined by their level of competence in this area, as well as by the specific characteristics of the platform itself. The result confirms the theory of hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954), according to which physiological needs and safety are basic and paramount for humans. According to the theory of information ambiguity (Downs, 1957), in conditions of information uncertainty, people tend to attach more importance to messages related to personal safety and well-being. A significant proportion of rumors about politics and regulation (18%) are consistent with the concept of a spiral of silence (Noel-Neuman, 1974), reflecting the audience's desire to fill in perceived information gaps in official discourse. It is also noteworthy that the consumer rights category accounts for a significant 19%, illustrating the practical orientation of modern information consumption.

Table 1. Classification and distribution of rumors

The analysis of discursive strategies presented in Table 2 demonstrates typical rhetorical techniques used to construct rumor headlines. The most effective strategies are those that exploit the emotional vulnerability of the audience. The strategy of "panic and escalation" is based on the theory of affective reaction (Zaionts, 1980), according to which emotional information processing precedes cognitive processing and does not require conscious assessment. Title 1 exploits the cognitive bias of accessibility described (Kahneman and Tversky, 1973), increasing the subjective assessment of the likelihood of the risk being discussed. The strategy of "questioning authority" corresponds to the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957), offering a solution to resolve contradictions between official position and personal experience. An example is heading 2. "Consumer anxiety" uses the phenomenon of "information conformity" as a strategy (Ash, 1956). For example, headline 4 creates a sense of a massive shift in consumer preferences, encouraging the audience to rethink their own brand concepts. "Controversial social issues" appeal to the mechanism of group polarization (Moscovici, 1969), when the discussion of acute topics leads to the strengthening of pre-existing attitudes, using the example of title 5.

Table 2. Discursive analysis of rumor headlines

When analyzing the linguistic features of the headlines of rumors, a number of patterns are found that correspond to the theory of framing (Hoffman, 1974). The use of specific lexical markers ("anxiety", "risk", "danger") sets a certain interpretative framework for the perception of the message. The formation of headlines in modern online media is accompanied by an implicit aggressiveness of an increased level ^{[14, p.373]}. According to the linguistic theory of hedging (Lakoff, 1973), the headlines of rumors often contain linguistic constructions that reduce the speaker's responsibility for the reliability of information (for example, "possible", "assumed"), which allows broadcasting false information while maintaining the appearance of objectivity. Rumors in the rhetoric of headlines are characterized by an appeal to authority and fear, the widespread use of news format and numerical indicators; agenda construction is often carried out using algorithmic stable structures, narrative elements and the formation of social currency.

The results of a comprehensive analysis of the thematic distribution and discursive strategies in the headlines of rumors demonstrate the systemic nature of the construction and dissemination of false information. The predominance of certain thematic categories reflects the basic information needs of the audience, and the use of specific discursive strategies is aimed at overcoming the cognitive filters of critical thinking. From the point of view of the theory of media ecology (Postman, 1992), rumors fill information niches that are not occupied by official discourse, responding to audience requests in conditions of information overload. The revealed patterns can serve as a basis for developing more effective strategies for media literacy and countering disinformation in the modern media space.

Conclusion

In the modern social media space, rumors are a specific discursive phenomenon that is generated and disseminated through online media. These information constructs have no factual basis and are characterized by purposefulness, targeting, and often aggressive potential. In this regard, platforms for fact-checking and refuting rumors are becoming particularly important, which are becoming an important tool for information regulation. Systematic work to identify and expose false information contributes to the formation of a healthier information ecosystem and reduces potential social risks associated with the spread of rumors. The key feature of rumors is their unverified status in the circulation process, which creates significant difficulties for ordinary users in determining their reliability. The issue of rumors is particularly relevant in the context of the social transformation that Chinese society is undergoing. Fundamentally eliminating the social foundations and numerous factors contributing to the generation of rumors is a long-term and complex task that requires an integrated approach. The prospects for further research are related to the study of the effectiveness of automated fact-checking systems based on artificial intelligence and the development of methods to improve the media literacy of users of social networks in conditions of information overload.