Theory, philosophy and sociology of Music in Ancient and Modern Confucianism

Chzhu Junxi PhD in Art History PhD; Faculty of Arts; Lomonosov Moscow State University 119234, Russia, city, ter. Lenin Mountains, . , 1 junxi19940620@mail.ru Other publications by this author

1. The theoretical system of ancient Confucian music (6th century BC - 10th century AD)

1.1. The Ontology of music: the philosophical construction of the unity of Heaven and man

The philosophical foundations of Confucian music theory are rooted in the understanding of cosmic order. In the opening section of the treatise "Li-ji. Notes about music" (礼记·乐记) States: "Music (Yue) is the harmony of Heaven and Earth; a ritual (Li) is the order of Heaven and Earth" ("乐者，天地之和也；礼者，天地之序也"）^{[24, p. 1527]}. This concept interprets music as an acoustic manifestation of the harmonious substance of the cosmos. This idea is reflected in the Xi-ci Zhuan (系辞传) of the Zhou Yi canon:"[Everything] is awakened by thunder and lightning, saturated with wind and rain; the sun and moon move in their rotation, alternating between cold and heat. The path of Qian (Heaven) forms the masculine principle, the path of Kun (Earth) forms the feminine principle." (“鼓之以雷霆，润之以风雨，日月运行，一寒一暑，乾道成男，坤道成女”）^{[7, p. 289]}. This passage suggests a connection between musical rhythms and natural patterns.

As Cai Zhongde notes in The History of the Aesthetics of Chinese Music, the Confucians created a system of analogies linking music with ethics through the theory of "mutual category resonation": "The five sounds (gong, shang, jue, zhi, yu) correspond to the five elements (metal, wood, water, fire, earth), the twelve lui-lui correspond to the twelve months, and the sound system becomes the medium of cosmic harmony"^{[21, p. 89]} . Xunzi deepened this theory, stating: "Music is what pleases the sages; it is able to ennoble the national spirit, deeply affects people, transforms customs and morals" ^{[4, p. 380]}, emphasizing the formative function of music in relation to human culture. nature.

Xu Fuguan in his work "The Spirit of Chinese Art" analyzes that Confucian musical ontology includes two dimensions: Cosmological — "harmony of Heaven and Earth"; Anthropological — "the middle nature of man", which are united through the circulation of energy "qi" [17. p. 117]. This idea is reflected in Yue Ji's statement that "all sounds come from the human mind," which reveals the nature of music as a medium of "mind and matter."

1.2. Ethical and functional theory: a system of sound education and moral education

The key thesis of Confucian music theory is the principle of "music as a means of perfecting virtue." In "Lun yu. Shu er" ("Judgments and conversations. Chapter VII") recorded how Confucius, after hearing the music of "Shao," "did not taste meat for three months," assessing it as "perfect in beauty and perfect in virtue" ^{[25, p. 104]}, which established the criterion of unity of aesthetic and ethical. Li Zehou notes that Confucians achieved "elevation from emotional purification to moral self—awareness" through a three—stage education system — "poetic enlightenment — ritual enlightenment — musical enlightenment" ^{[9, p. 68]}.

In "Zhouli. Chunguan zongbo" ("Zhou rituals. The Spring Official-Zongbo") describes in detail the institutional structure, according to which "The great musician taught the sons of the state the musical virtues: the middle (?), harmony (?), reverence (?), constancy (?), filial piety (?), brotherly love (?)" ^{[16, p. 1243]}, which confirms the integration of music education into the official ideological system. Yang Yinliu, analyzing the sounds of bells Zhou revealed a symbolic correspondence of the structure of awe (雅乐, "noble music") — pachistopelma system "Gong—cha cswe—Zhi—Yu" (宫—商—角—徵—羽), a hierarchical order "ruler—official—people—things—things" ^{[29, p. 47]}.

Wang Gouwei in the work "Guantan conglin. Shi yue ci" ("Collection of works from the Hall of Contemplation. Explanation of musical sequences") proved that the ritual of Zhou feasts with "praising Qingmiao in singing and performing Xiang on wind instruments" actually served to strengthen clan ethics through musical representation ^{[2, p. 145]}. This mechanism of transformation "sound is a virtue" (声—德) in the "Yue JI" ("record of music") is generalized as "the achievement of a music control heart, why naturally born directness, sincerity, FILIAL piety and trust" (致乐以治心，则易直子谅之心油然生矣) ^{[23, p. 1534]}, highlighting the catalytic role of music in the formation of moral feeling.

1.3. The ritual-musical system: the political practice of social integration

1.3.1. The historical dimension of institution building

The ritual music system, as a practical form of Confucian music theory, originates in the political project of Zhou-gong to "create rituals and establish music", implemented in the early period of Western Zhou. In the canonical text "Shu Ching. Zhou Guan" (尚书*周周) is written: "Tsung-bo is in charge of state rituals, manages the relationship between spirits and people, harmonizes the higher and lower" (宗伯掌邦礼，人人人，和和上上)) ^{[6, p. 437]}, which indicates the transformation of ritual and music into a key instrument of public administration. As Yang Xiangkui notes in his work "The Society of the Zhou Era and the Ritual and Musical Civilization": "Zhou-gong, modifying the rituals of the Shang era, transformed shamanic practices into a hierarchical system, making music a symbol of legitimization of power" ^{[31, p. 213]}. In the treatise "Zhou Li. Chun Guan regulates in detail the functions of the "Great Ruler of Music": "[He] manages the Cheng-jun method in order to regulate the educational policy of the state" ^{[16, p. 1241]}. This position demonstrates how ideological discipline was carried out through musical education.

1.3.2. Symbolic system of hierarchical order

The ritual-musical system constructed a social hierarchy through the differentiation of musical forms. As highlighted in 《Lee JI·JI Yue》(《礼记·乐记"): "Music unites and distinguishes ritual" (乐者为同，礼者为异). Commentator Zheng Xuan explains: "Music harmonizes folk hearts, ritual establishes the differences between noble and low" ^{[23, p. 1529]}. Specific manifestations include:

• Regulation of musical instruments: In the chapter "Dian Tong" from the "Zhou Rituals" it is established: "The ruler is entitled to a palace suspension, princes are entitled to a three—sided suspension, dignitaries are entitled to a two—sided suspension, and service personnel are entitled to a one—sided suspension" ^{[16, p. 1256]}. The number of tools and the way they were placed became markers of social status.

• The scale of musical and dance performances: According to "Zuo Zhuan. The 5th year of Yin Gong" (《左传*隐公公"), "The Emperor is entitled to eight rows of dancers (八佾), princes — six, dignitaries — four, servants — two." Confucius condemned the Ji clan for using the "eight rows in the courtyard" as a usurpation of privileges ^{[28, p. 46]}, which demonstrates the strict hierarchy of musical and dance norms. Wang Gouwei revealed in his "Treatise on the Institutions of Yin and Zhou": "The Zhou people replaced the Yin sacrificial practices with a ritual-musical system, transforming consanguineous ethics into political ethics" ^{[2, p. 453]}.

1.3.3. Ritual practices in political action

The ritual-musical system realized social integration through ceremonial performances, vivid examples of which are "feast in the community" and "the great shooting range".:

·Feasting in the community:

In "I-lee. Xiang yin Ju li" (仪礼*乡饮酒礼) describes: "The musicians ascend [to the platform] and perform three songs; [then] enter [playing on] shen and perform three parts; alternating songs sound three times; everything ends with joint music" ^{[13, p. 89]}. This music program codified the hierarchy of seniority and social statuses. As Yang Kuan notes in The History of Western Zhou: "The performance of the poems "Lu Ming" (鹿鸣) and "Si Mu" (四牡) during a communal feast was essentially an artistic reproduction of the principles of clan ethics" ^{[30, p. 217]}. The participants of the ritual transformed social differences into cultural consensus through standardized interactions—"offering wine— performing music — ceremonial bows."

· The Great Shooting Range:

"Li-ji. She yi (礼记·射义) prescribes: "Body movements should correspond to the ritual, and the rhythm to the music." Zheng Xuan explains: "The shooter must observe the ritual in advancing and retreating, and the tempo of the arrow release must coincide with the melodies of "Zou Yu" (驺虞) and "Li shou" (狸首)" ^{[24, p. 1662]}. Yu Yingshi analyzes in his work "On the connection between Heaven and Man": The construction "music regulates the speed of fire" elevated military training to the rank of a moral performance "competition of noble men" ^{[26, p. 153]}.

Sacrifices to Heaven and temple rituals as the highest forms of ritual and musical practice further strengthened political legitimacy. The chapter "The Great Music Official" from the "Zhou Rituals" states: "To perform [the melody of] Huangzhong, to sing [in harmony] Dalyu, to dance the "Cloud Gate" (Yunmen) for sacrifice to the Heavenly deities" ^{[16, p. 1259]}. Through specific sound patterns, music and dancing, a symbolic system of communication between people and deities was constructed. Xu Fuguan notes: A technical breakthrough in the creation of bianzhongs (编钟) — "the double sounding of one bell" — made it possible to fully implement the twelve-tone system (十二律吕). Music has become a physical manifestation of the "Heavenly Way" ^{[17, p. 124]}. Ritual hymns from the Odes of Zhou section in the Book of Songs, such as Qingmiao and Wei Tian Zhi Ming, were repeatedly performed in temple ceremonies, intertwining sacred time with historical memory. Wang Guowei discovered in his research that the inscriptions on the bronze vessels of Western Zhou often begin with the phrase: "The ruler ascends to the Great Hall, singing [melody] Ui" (无射), which proves the deep integration of ritual and musical practices into the narratives of power ^{[2, p. 332]}.

1.3.4. Mechanisms of social integration

The ritual-musical system realized political integration through three interrelated mechanisms: the first was emotional resonance. The "Notes on Music" (《乐记") puts forward the theory of the "unifying power of music" (乐统同), according to which collective musical experience generates an emotional bond that "fuses [society] in harmony" (合同而化) ^{[23, p. 1531]}. In the chapter "The Proportionality of sounds" from "The Springs and Autumns of Liu" (《吕氏春秋·适音"), the concept of "median sound" (衷音) illustrates the regulating role of music in collective psychology: "Music should not be excessive; its essence is balance and harmony" ^{[15, p. 132]}.

The second is symbolic discipline. As noted Whether Czecho, ritual and music system through "artistically designed ideology" (艺术化的意识形态) transformed hierarchical differences in "sensible aesthetic form" (可感知的审美形式) ^{[11, p. 67]}. For example, in the chapter "Ceremonial norms" from the "Book of Rituals" it is stated: "Dignitaries do not dare to remove the suspensions [of musical instruments] for no reason, service personnel do not dare to remove zithers and lutes" ^{[1, p. 25]}. The right to own tools became a marker of social status.

The third is a show of force. Ge Zhaoguang in The History of Chinese Thought analyzes how the Zhou rulers asserted cultural hegemony through rituals of "demonstrating music" (for example, Ji Zha's visit to observe Zhou music): "Musical insight and political authority merged here" ^{[5, p. 89]}.

2. Confucian Music theory and philosophy in modern Transformation (Early 20th century —present)

2.1. Reconstruction of musical ontology by Neo-Confucians

The first is the transition to the philosophy of mind and nature. The Neo-Confucian scholar Tang Junyi in his work "The Basic Principles of Chinese Philosophy: A Study of Tao" puts forward the thesis: "Music (yue) is the harmonization of the humane heart (ren xin), which reaches sound vibrations", integrating traditional Confucian musical ontology into the system of philosophy of heart-consciousness ^{[19, p. 335]}. Analyzing the statement from Yue Ji, "Music comes from within, ritual is formed from without," he emphasizes that music is "an external form of expression of inner moral feelings," and asserts: "The essence of Confucian musical philosophy lies in the spiritual union of Heaven and man through art."^{[19, p. 341]}. Mou Zongsan, developing this idea through the prism of Kant's philosophy, suggests: "The metaphysical basis of music is rooted in grasping moral substance through "intellectual intuition", believing that Confucian "musical education" is able to overcome the aesthetic dilemma of Western dualism of subject and object ^{[12, p. 217]}. This position is reflected in Xu Fuguan's work "The Spirit of Chinese Art": "The Confucian understanding of music through the "authenticity of nature and feelings" (性情之真) realizes the resonance between the subject and the cosmos" ^{[17, p. 133]}.

This is followed by the phenomenological and hermeneutic approaches. Cheng Zhongying, applying the phenomenological method, states in the article "The Ethical Dimension of Confucian Musical Aesthetics": "The Confucian musical experience contains the ethical quality of intersubjectivity, where the listener, performer, and composer reach a moral consensus through a "musical space" ^{[33, p. 48]}. As an example, he analyzes an episode from "Lun yu. Shu er" (论语·述而), where Confucius, "when you hear good singing, always asked to repeat and then sang" (与人歌而善，必使反之，而后和之), proving that music creates a "dynamic field generating ethical relations" ^{[33, p. 52]}. Liu Xiaogan reinterprets the theory of "sound-emotion-politics" through a hermeneutic perspective. The scientist defends the principle of "critical inheritance" of Confucian ethics, criticizing the tendency of the Neo-Confucian school to systematize and Kantianize the ethical system of Confucianism. On the one hand, he suggests a non-essentialist reconstruction of Confucian ethics in a globalizing context, on the other hand, he warns against Western centrism, calling for the Confucian ethical tradition to be viewed through the prism of an "open tradition." This approach presupposes the dialectical overcoming of binary oppositions between tradition and modernization, local and universal, while maintaining an epistemological sensitivity to the historical specifics of Confucian discourse ^{[36, p. 328]}.

2.2. Expansion and criticism of sociological perspectives

First, there is the discussion around the "Weber thesis." Max Weber in his work "Confucianism and Taoism" criticized the ritual-musical system for "the lack of formal rationalization, which generates traditionalism as an obstacle to modernization" ^{[39, p. 228]}. Yu Yingshi objected to this position: "The synthesis of the "rational and emotional" in the ritual and musical tradition forms a unique path of "inner transcendence" for Chinese society. His characterization of "the embodiment of rationality in affect", on the contrary, provides cultural resources for modern democracy ^{[27, p. 215]}.

Secondly, historical sociology has conducted empirical studies of Confucian musical philosophy. In his work "State Sacrifices and Music in Ming China" (Joseph Lam), using the example of the reforms of ritual music during the Jiajing period (1522-1566), he revealed the instrumentalization of Confucian ideas: "Emperor Shizong, restoring the ancient system of twelve tones, reconstructed music as a symbol of the legitimacy of imperial power" ^{[35, p. 89]}. He also noted that localized practices of folk ritual music (for example, ceremonial dances in honor of Confucius) formed a form of "negotiated resistance" to the official ideology ^{[35, p. 147]}.

Thirdly, in the postcolonial context, modern scholars are rethinking the development of Confucian musical philosophy. In his book Unfinished Modernity, Li Oufan criticizes the "essentialist tendency" in the musical philosophy of neo-Confucianism: "Abstracting 'ritual and music' into eternal values ignores the pluralism of musical practices that emerged after the Ming and Qing eras" ^{[8, p. 77]}. Yen Ang points out in a comparative study: "The Confucian concept of "harmony" in music can transform into a discursive instrument of cultural hegemony in a global context" ^{[32, 2014]}.

3. Practical value in modern society

3.1. Transformation of the resources of ritual and musical culture in cultural management

Firstly, in the aspect of the preservation and innovative development of intangible cultural heritage. In his work "A Comprehensive Interpretation of Confucianism", Chen Lai puts forward the concept of a "new ritual and musical civilization", suggesting "activating the spirit of ritual music through modern art forms such as cinema and digital media in order to transform it into a flexible force of social management" ^{[22, p. 331]}. This idea received a response at the political level: in 2017, the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, as part of the "Program for the Inheritance and Development of Excellent Traditional Chinese Culture," included the art of playing Guqin, southern music (Nanyin) and Xi'an percussion music in the list of key objects of protection, emphasizing in the document the need to "reveal the modern value of ritual and musical culture in the aspect of "education through music"" ^[40].

Xiang Yang, as a result of field research, discovered that the Qujiain Music Community in Guan County (Hebei Province) It preserves the traditional triad of "shangguan music - sedentary performance — ritual", where the functions of "worshipping heaven through music" and "community harmonization" continue to play a role in the management of modern communities ^{[18, p. 297]}. In 2003, UNESCO included Guqin art in the "Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Mankind," which indicates that Guqin art carries Confucian ethical principles of moderation and peace. ^[42].

Secondly, in the sphere of cultural industry and symbolic reproduction. The project of the Palace Museum "Sounds of Bells and Bronze Tripods" uses 3D technologies to reconstruct the acoustic effects of the Tsenhou bells, integrating the VR experience of ritual ceremonies. As part of the "Plan for the Revival of National Music" on the Bilibili platform (2023), the electronic version of the song "The Melody of Lanlin's Entry into Battle" (兰陵王入阵曲) has gained more than 10 million views. The authors, combining pentatonics with electronic pulses, interpreted the modernity of the concept of "connecting music with control" ^[43].

3.2. Ethical reconstruction in educational practice

Firstly, in the framework of ritual and music courses in basic education. The Department of Education of Shandong Province, in the "Guide to Courses of Excellent Traditional Chinese Culture" (鲁教基字〔2019〕12号) ^[40], prescribes "educational education in the field of rituals and music" (礼乐)) in primary schools, including singing verses from the "Book of Songs" (《诗经"), making ceramic pipes of Xun (陶埙) and other elements. Practical example: in Jingulu Elementary School (Jinan), through the course "Musical and poetic study "Lu Ming" (《鹿鸣"), combining music, etiquette and collective activity, the level of conflict among students decreased by 37% (data from the "Report on Moral Education of the school for 2022"). Wang Ning in "Confucian dimension of music education," argues: "the Method "of oral transmission and the heart of understanding" (口传心授) in the system of czynszu (减字谱) for Qin (古琴) is able to develop the qualities of "respect—the internal concentration of purity" (敬—静—净) to compensate for the shortcomings of instrumental rationality standardized education" ^{[3, p. 89]}.

Secondly, in the general education system of universities. The program "Research Course on Ritual Culture and Music" at Tsinghua University includes an in-depth study of "Music Records", interpretation of Yayue musical notation in the Gongchepu system, and other disciplines. Professor Peng Lin emphasizes: "Through bodily practices (for example, training in ritual dancing and dance), personality formation is achieved according to the principle of "from art to Tao" ^{[14, p. 214]}. The Faculty of East Asian Studies at Harvard University, in collaboration with the Shanghai Conservatory, has developed a course on Comparative Ritual Musicology, which provides a cross-cultural analysis of Song—era musical notation Songs of the White Stone and Gregorian chorales (the course program is available in the Harvard FAS Catalog 2023).

3.3. Cultural dialogue in the context of global ethical construction

As Tu Weiming notes in his work "Confucian Thought: the Self as a creative Transformation", the Confucian idea of "harmony through music" offers a solution to civilizational conflicts through "resonance in diversity" ^{[37, p. 167]}. This concept is reflected in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001), where Article 7 emphasizes that "intercultural dialogue should be based on mutual respect and creative interaction" — which forms a transmodern dialogue with the Confucian idea of "ritual distinguishes, music unites" from the Yueji treatise (─记).

Zeng Fanren in his work "Introduction to ecological aesthetics" ^{[20, p. 192]} states: "The Confucian concept of great music harmonizing with Heaven and Earth contains a deep ecological consciousness, and its principle of "consistency of sounds" can be transformed into a resource of modern ecological aesthetics." German sinologist Wolfgang Kubin (Gu Bin), comparing the teachings of Yueji with Heidegger's concept of the "fourfold" (Geviert) — "Heaven, Earth, Gods, Mortals" — points out: "Confucian musical philosophy, which builds cosmology through a system of sound patterns, offers a holistic paradigm of thinking to overcome the ecological crisis of the man-made era" ^{[34, p. 34]}.

3.4. Critical reflection and promising directions

Li Zehou, in his work "A Response to Sandel and Others," warns, "The modern transformation of ritual and music culture requires caution against the trap of moral idealism in order to avoid the transformation of "musical education" into a new cultural tyranny" ^{[10, p. 156]}. Based on archaeological data, Luo Tai points out: "The ritual and musical system of Western Zhou was originally pluralistic; modern reconstruction should overcome textocentrism, paying attention to artifacts and regional differences" ^{[38, p. 329]}. In addition, new approaches in the field of digital humanities need to be developed in the research of Confucian music theory. Through artificial intelligence (AI), it was found that the key term "ritual" in the treatise "Yue ji" occurs with a frequency exceeding the indicator of the term "harmony" by 1.59 times. This quantitative analysis allows us to identify the key orientation of the Confucian philosophy of music, demonstrating the statistically confirmed priority of the normative and regulatory aspect over the principle of synthetic unity in the musical and ritual paradigm of ancient Chinese thought. This new path quantitatively reveals the main thrust of Confucian musical philosophy.

4. Conclusion

The results of the study indicate that the Confucian concept of music retains "harmony" (he) as a key axiological constant, but its representative forms are dynamically transformed depending on the historical context. In traditional society, music functioned as the "voice of the cosmic-social order," which links the heavenly path and human relationships, as well as promotes political integration and moral discipline through a ritual and musical system. Under the influence of modernization challenges, neo-Confucian intellectuals reconstructed music as an "aesthetic expression of subjective nature", endowing it with the mediative function of harmonizing instrumental and value reason. In modern society, digital technologies, the protection of intangible cultural heritage, and intercivilizational dialogue create new practical dimensions for the Confucian musical tradition: from VR immersive reconstructions of Guqin art to the construction of a global ethic of unity in diversity. This demonstrates the non-essentialist openness of classical theory to participate in the reconfiguration of modern civilization.

The present study overcomes the one-dimensional historical and philosophical narrativization, revealing the immanent logic of "variability-immutability" of Confucian music theory through a triad of methodological perspectives: philosophical ontology, political sociology and cultural praxeology. The invariant core is the teleological orientation towards the ideal of "harmonization", while variability manifests itself in paradigmatic shifts: a methodological transition from "cosmological analogy" to "subjective experience"; a functional transformation from "hierarchy symbolism" to "cultural identification marker". These conclusions form the theoretical basis for the reinterpretation of traditional cultural resources in the context of modernity, while simultaneously offering epistemological guidelines for the rehabilitation of the humanistic dimension in the era of technological determination.