The representation of the semantics of the lexemes "sweetness" and 甜/甘 by cross-linguistic and cross-cultural comparison

Li Syue ORCID: 0000-0003-0569-5588 Assistant; Engineering Academy; Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University of Russia PhD Candidate; Institute of Russian Language; Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University of Russia 117198, Miklukho-Maklaya str., 6, Moscow, 117198, Russia lingxinlx@yandex.com

Introduction

The language has a national character, which is reflected in it through special forms of representation of the world, a link between a person and the surrounding world. The state of language is closely related to the form of cultural development. The study of the peculiarities of the representation of various concepts in the linguistic picture of the world continues to be relevant. The theoretical basis of this article is based on the concept of linguistic relativity ^{[16; 18]}. The main attention is paid to the systematic generalization of research results on the interrelationships between language and culture, presented in numerous scientific papers ^{[1; 2; 6]}. In addition, the creation of a theoretical structure is impossible without careful elaboration of the definition of the concept of "culture" ^{[5; 15; 17; 20; 36]}, which serves not only as a foundation for building theory, but also as a key element ensuring the effectiveness of the analysis of texts related to the research topic.

The study of vocabulary in modern linguistics covers all aspects of the lexical level of a language, including word forms, the meaning of words, the comparative and comparative study of words, and other areas of research that make vocabulary the object of their own study. Studying the issues of word semantics can contribute to further research of cultural meanings of words and stable expressions and enrich the results of linguistic and cultural studies.

The relevance of our research is due to the need for an in-depth analysis of the lexeme "sweetness" in Russian and the concepts "甜(Tian) /甘(Gan)" in Chinese in terms of their semantic, pragmatic and cultural characteristics. Despite a considerable number of works devoted to the concept of "Taste", a detailed study of the lexeme "sweetness" in Russian and the Chinese words "甜" (Tian) and "甘" (Gan) "sweetness" through the prism of interlanguage and intercultural comparison remains insufficiently developed. The value of the research lies in an integrated approach that allows us to identify both universal and unique features inherent in lexemes in two languages. Special attention is paid to the analysis of not only the basic meanings and structural correlations, but also the deep cultural connotations that these lexemes acquire in the language systems of Russian and Chinese cultures.

Materials and research methods

Russian Russian dictionaries are the main source of linguistic material for this study, such as the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by S. A. Kuznetsov ^[4], D. N. Ushakov ^[12], S. I. Ozhegova and N. Y. Shvedova ^[8], V. V. Morkovkina ^[7] and the dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language ^[10], as well as various universal dictionaries of the Chinese language, including the modern Chinese dictionary ^[30], Zhonghua Large dictionary of hieroglyphs ^[35], modern Chinese dictionary (50,000 words) ^[19] and Xinhua dictionary of hieroglyphs ^[31].

The method of linguistic comparison is also an important research technique for studying the universality of languages and their uniqueness, their semantic differences in quantitative and qualitative terms, forms of expression of concepts in different languages, national identity, and the analysis of the causes that determine similarity and difference. Russian Russian linguocultures reveal the similarities and differences between the Russian and Chinese linguocultures through a detailed description and comparative analysis of common, similar or completely different values and worldviews carried by this lexeme into various linguistic contexts (for example, Russian and Chinese). When the discussion deepened into a specific area of food culture, the universal central lexeme "sweetness" was chosen as the research base..

Results and discussion

"Taste" as an object of linguistic research is of natural interest and continues to be the focus of attention of scientists, including the linguistic reflection of the concept of "taste" in all the diversity of their cultural features. A number of researchers have placed "taste" as a classical concept in different linguistic environments, such as Russian, Chinese, English and French, in order to conduct a comparative analysis of word formation, linguistic cultures and linguistic means of expression in poetics. Among them are A. V. Dvizova, L. B. Kryukova ^{[3, P. 9]}, E. Yu. Yarovaya ^{[14, pp. 184-191]}, who note that linguistic means describing taste are inextricably linked to food culture, which indicates the specifics of culture and the dependence of language on the social context in the transmission of sensory experience, in particular, taste sensations. In the article by A. A. Polyakova and E. A. Yurina ^{[9, pp. 76-84]}, taste as an attribute of food becomes a representative of metaphorization in the process of considering the worldview of the Russian language: "A significant fragment of the metaphorization of the food sector is the characteristic gastrometaphor, which implements the projection of various properties and qualities of food products on various phenomena of the surrounding world." The article by E. A. Yurina and A. V. Baldova ^{[13, pp. 152-169]} examines food metaphors in Russian linguistic and cultural discourse, analyzes their linguistic implementation at the lexical, phraseological and textual levels.

When reviewing the research results of Chinese philologists on the keyword "taste", it was found that researcher Jiang Shaoyu ^{[24, pp. 55-61]} was engaged in a diachronic analysis of the semantics of the "five tastes" (sour, sweet, bitter, pungent, salty) according to traditional concepts in the Chinese language, comparing changes in the basic and figurative meanings of these tastes from ancient times to the modern state of the language. The study of the semantic features of words denoting taste sensations, their cultural connotations, linguistic phenomena such as metaphor and metonymy related to taste, based on the materials of works of art, is also common ^{[22; 25; 26]}. Some of the research focuses on a comparative analysis of the semantics of words denoting taste sensations in different languages, for example, on comparing the meanings of taste words in Chinese with their counterparts in Korean ^{[27; 28]}, Japanese ^[33] and Vietnamese ^[21]. Some studies ^{[23; 29; 34]} provide reviews from a macro-theoretical point of view, covering various aspects of the study of words denoting taste sensations in the Chinese language.

Xu Yidan11 compared the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the concept of "sweetness" in three languages – Russian, English and Chinese. Although the author used the lexeme "sweet" as a keyword for an in-depth comparison of the general and individual meanings of the word "sweetness" in different linguistic cultures, the analysis did not take into account other possible expressions that may exist in the language that directly correspond to the concept of "sweetness". Thus, the scientist comprehensively analyzed the main meanings of the lexemes "sweetness" in Russian and "甜" (Tian) in Chinese in various dictionaries. Based on the work of Xu Yidang, we believe that in order to further study the concept contained in the Chinese lexeme "甘" (Gan), which is synonymous with the Chinese word "甜" (Tian), it is necessary to identify similarities and differences between them against the background of intercultural communication.

The main meaning of the lexeme "sweetness", as it is defined in authoritative dictionaries, corresponds primarily and directly to the concept expressed by the adjective "sweet", in another word, it denotes a specific taste property – "sweet taste" ^{[4; 7; 8; 12]}. For a better figurative description of abstract sensory experience, lexicographers skillfully use the rhetorical device "synesthesia", aimed at enriching and concretizing the understanding of a particular sensory experience (in this case, taste) by mobilizing associations with other sensory organs (for example, vision, touch). In particular, when interpreting the concept of "sweetness", typical objects with characteristics of sweetness, such as sugar, honey, and others, are used as a figurative reference. As a result, the reader's intuitive perception of the taste properties indicated by the expression "sweetness" is enhanced, but the boundaries of this semantic category are subtly expanded, making it more complete and understandable.

In the dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language ^[10], synonyms of the word "sweet" are represented by such lexemes as sugar, honey, treacle. These synonyms are related to the field of food products.: they refer to products whose main source of sweetness is sugar, and to products containing the natural sweet taste of honey, as well as those that are similar in composition and taste to candy with molasses. This makes it possible to more subtly represent the variety of manifestations of the taste attribute of sweetness in various food products.

From the point of view of writing hieroglyphs in Chinese, "甜" (Tian) consists of two parts – tongue and sweet. According to the explanations of "Shoven Jiezi", new attention is paid to the systematic generalization of research results on the interrelationships between language and culture, presented in numerous scientific works ^[32]: 舌，知甘也 (Language can taste sweetness). In Chinese dictionaries, sweet is interpreted as "having a taste similar to sugar or honey, in contrast. Gorky" ^{[19; 30; 31; 35]}. Thus, it can be seen that the perception of the lexeme "sweet" in both Russian and Chinese linguistic cultures is based on the understanding of the concepts of "sugar" and "honey", which is common to the understanding of the concept of "sweetness" by native speakers of both languages. In other words, of all the types of food, it is sugar and honey that are most associated with a sweet taste. In the recorded examples, there are other products that can be modified with the lexeme "sweet" as a phrase, for example: Sweet berries. What a sweet watermelon! Apricot is sweet like honey. Sweet juice.

Moreover, in Chinese, "甘" (Gan) and "甜" (Tian) are the same in the sense of expressing taste, in this respect there is no difference between the words. In the explanatory dictionary of Chinese characters, "甜" (Tian) is also classified as "甘" (Gan) according to the shape of the character. "甘" (Gan) and "甜" (Tian) can also be morphemes that have the ability to combine with other morphemes. The original meaning of "甘" (Gan) in the language implies "甜美" (for example, 甘甜, 甘味), conveying the meaning of "sweet and pleasant". This value is similar to the sweet taste expressed by the lexeme "甜" (Tian), but the emotional coloring carried by the lexeme "甘" (Gan) is more intense and positive. Compared to "甜" (Tian), "甘" (Gan) not only denotes specific taste sensations, but is also more often used to symbolize positive emotions or states that bring satisfaction.

In particular, when "甘" (Gan) used in conjunction with these specific words, like "Rosa (露水)", "spring water (泉水)", "rain (雨)", it is combined in such words as 甘露 (sweet dew), 甘泉 (sweet spring), 甘霖 (the long-awaited rain). The natural elements described in these words may not directly reflect the "sweet and pleasant" characteristics in the sense of taste. Nevertheless, they give these elements a positive and valuable symbolic meaning through the "甘" (Gan). These words also refer to cultural symbols that evoke positive associations and value meanings. For example, 甘霖 means rain after a long drought, while at the same time, it symbolizes hope. Such usage goes beyond the usual direct description of taste and instead emphasizes the pleasant feelings, vitality, and hope that they evoke.

In addition, in comparison with words formed from morphemes "甜" ("Tian"), such as 甜腻, 甜丝丝, "甘" (Gan) (for example, 甘味, 甘甜) has less too direct and specific description of sweetness, but rather more implicit and positive emotions when expressing similar in taste. This difference indicates the subtlety of vocabulary selection in the Chinese language, that is, with the help of various combinations of morphemes, a rich, diverse and subtle emotional experience is conveyed.

Thus, "甜腻" is usually often used with a negative emotional connotation, denotes excessive sweetness, and is also used to describe overly exaggerated, annoying emotions, while "甘甜" is usually associated with pleasant sensations and expresses a comfortable, pleasant feeling.

In some cases, "甘" (Gan) and "甜" (Tian) are not interchangeable. In the case where they relate to the names of some of the ingredients (except the names of the desserts), "甘" (Gan) and "甜" (Tien) have very different to the usual combination: 甘薯, 甘蓝, 甘蔗, and 甜菜, 甜瓜, 甜酱, 甜酒, 甜味菊. These words are already fixed nominative structures, and although "甘" (Gan) and "甜" (Tian) express similar taste concepts in a broad sense, they are highly fixed and non-interchangeable in a specific lexical composition. For example, in these words "甘" (Gan) and "甜" (Tian) are combined with certain morphemes of nouns, forming proper names with a clear reference. In such constructions "甘" (Gan) and "甜" (Tian) are morphemes, and their position is fixed, so there are options such as "甜薯", "甜蓝", "甜蔗", "甘菜", "甘瓜", "甘酱", "甘酒", "甘味菊". This phenomenon is a reflection of the stability and specificity of the structure of the lexical system of the Chinese language: when forming vocabulary, different morphemes follow certain rules of combination, which are determined by the historical development of the language, cultural background and cognitive characteristics of people. In Russian, there are examples of similar features reflecting the accuracy of lexemes: Sweet pepper (paprika, red pepper); Sweet wine (made from grape varieties with a high sugar content); Sweet champagne (a variety of such wine).

In Russian, from the point of view of expressing correlativity to food, in addition to indicating taste, the lexeme "sweet" also has the meaning "Cooked with sugar, honey, jam, etc. (about the dish)" ^[7]. It can be used to describe a sweet dish or specific products with a sweet taste, or to refer to "Stained with jam, honey, etc.": Sweet lips; Do not touch the tablecloth with sweet hands. "Sweet hands or lips" here does not mean that the mouth and hands themselves have a sweet taste. This description is based on the contact or contamination of hands and mouth with substances with a special sweet taste, such as jam or honey. Here, "sweet" no longer refers strictly to the inherent properties of the substance, but is used to refer to a similar, non-literal sensation of sweetness, based on the characteristics of typical sweet foods. Such usage is more reflected in the cultural connotation of the language than in the direct scientific classification. And in Chinese, when it is necessary to express such a metaphorical meaning, it is not enough to rely only on the literal meaning of the words "甘" (Gan) and "甜" (Tian), they need to be combined with other words.

Based on the designation of the taste of food, the lexeme "sweet" later acquired many meanings closely related to the emotional state. In the large explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by S. A. Kuznetsov ^[4], there are two categories related to the definition of "emotional state", in one there are positive emotions that symbolize inner joy and satisfaction: «1. Causing a pleasant sensation when perceived (about sounds, smells): The sweet smell of acacia. Sweet fragrance of flowers; 2. Imbued with contentment, happiness, joy: Sweet moment; Sweet moment; Sweet life; 3. Pleasant; giving pleasure, enjoyment: Sweet dreams; Sweet kiss; Sweet dream; Sweet memories." In the other, it has a less positive meaning, a manifestation of emotions with a component of falsehood, which often lack sincerity and depth. Meanwhile, this separation actually makes the lexeme richer and more specific in expressing emotions.: "4. Sweet, sweetly obsequious: Sweet smile; Sweet look; Sweet speech; Sweet voice."

In relation to Chinese lexeme "甜" ("Tian") is typically used values, indicating feelings of gratefulness, joy, and goodness, such as: 甜美, 甜蜜, 甜腻, 甜润, 甜丝丝 – all these examples mean positive emotion. Unlike the meaning of "甜" (Tian), the word "甘" (Gan) refers to an attitude, behavior based on inner self-identification, voluntariness or desirability, for example: 甘愿 (voluntarily, voluntarily), 甘心 ( (to do something. willingly, willingly go to something-L.), 甘心 (willingly, with joy; to be ready), 甘于吃苦 (to endure difficulties with hunting), 甘之如饴 (to accept something with bitterness, to take for granted), 甘居人下 (to recognize superiority), 甘休 (to agree to the cessation of something-L.). The above examples make sense, emphasizing a person's inner willingness to face difficulties, accept and endure pain when faced with a choice or challenge. At the same time, the word 甘心 is often used with the negative word "not" (不) – 不甘心 (to feel some dissatisfaction), since in practical application it has the opposite meaning: to reluctantly give up something.

The word "甜言蜜语" literally translates as "sweet words, honey words", its use corresponds to expressions in Russian, meaning "feigned benevolence; excessively affectionate"4. This word means a means of communication for obtaining a special purpose (for example, to please, manipulate or mislead others) through the sweetness of seductive speech.

In addition, the large universal dictionary of the Russian language ^[7] presents another meaning: "one that, being by nature a negative feeling, a sensation, makes for some emotionally significant reason to feel pleasure, pleasure: sweet pain; sweet agony; sweet suffering; sweet sadness." Similar expressions in the Chinese language "甜蜜的伤痛" (sweet pain), "甜蜜的悲伤" (sweet sorrow) and other representerade not directly through "甜" (Tian), and by modifying compound words "伤痛", "悲伤" with the words forming the "甜蜜" from the word "甜" (Tian). Words that are opposite to each other in regular contexts are combined and thus transformed into a unique expression effect.

In addition to describing the meanings of "taste", "emotion", the lexeme "sweet" also means "delicious". From the examples of "earned bread is sweeter; any piece is sweet to a hungry person", it is easy to find out that the lexeme "sweet" here does not mean that bread has a sweet taste like honey or sugar, which means emotional or psychological pleasure. Especially when pleasure comes from the results obtained after hard work. In this example, the lexeme "sweet" moves from describing the sweetness of taste to depicting a positive assessment of taste, which exceeds the actual taste sensations and takes into account emotional, psychological and socio-cultural aspects. For the hungry, bread is not only a food for survival, but also a symbol of aspiration and satisfaction. Thus, even the most ordinary bread in this context is endowed with a "sweet" taste. Such sweetness is the epitome of peace of mind.

Moreover, the neuter word form "sweet" from the lexeme "sweet" is perceived as a lexeme with an independent meaning. It repeats the meaning of the lexeme "sweets" (derived from the plural form of the word "sweetness"), meaning "confectionery, sweets, jam, honey, etc.: buy sweets; eat sweets; treat with sweets; oriental sweets; tray with sweets." In Chinese, the words 甜食、、、、、、 are used to express a similar meaning.

In Chinese, words with the morpheme "甜" (Tian) can also denote work (for example 甜活) and benefit (for example 甜头).

The lexeme "sweet" in a certain context (for example, in such an affectionate address to children as "Sleep, my sweet!") is not interpreted literally as "sweet taste", but is used as a kind of intimate, warm appeal to a person reflecting the speaker's love and closeness to the one to whom it is addressed (usually it's a child).

In Chinese, the lexeme "甜" (Tian) is often used to describe a person's appearance or character. The expression "长得甜" usually describes an appearance that leaves an impression of comeliness, and "嘴甜" most often refers to a person's ability to please others with their words, arousing sympathy. These uses go beyond the original meaning of the word "甜" (Tian) and are used to evaluate the external or characteristic features of a person.

As a result, after comparing the various meanings of the concept "sweetness" in Russian and Chinese, the following scheme is presented (Fig. 1):

Fig. 1: Semantics of the lexeme "sweetness and 甜/甘" in Russian and Chinese

Fig. 1: Semantics of the lexemes "sweetness and 甜/甘" in Russian and Chinese languages

Conclusion

Distinctive features of national cultures can be revealed and explored using juxtaposition techniques, which makes it possible to better illustrate a fragment of the worldview conveyed by language. Vocabulary, being an integral aspect of language, is able to reflect a person's subjective perception of the objective world to a certain extent. When it comes to the lexical level of a language, we must pay attention not only to the external structure, but also to delve into the microcosm of each word in order to identify the most important elements.

The lexeme "sweetness" in Russian and Chinese has both common and different meanings. In Chinese, the concept corresponding to the Russian word "sweet" corresponds to two words: "甜" (Tian) and "甘" (Gan).

When analyzing in detail the semantics of the lexeme "sweetness" in Russian and Chinese, it should be noted that "sweetness", "甜" (Tian), "甘" (Gan) in their basic meaning show significant similarities, indicating a feeling of sweet taste similar to honey or sugar. The correspondence in both languages is expressed with a high degree of accuracy. In addition to the meaning of taste, the same meaning as in Russian is used as a name for food products.

In terms of expressing emotional figurative meanings, the Russian lexeme "sweet" is distinguished by a more detailed classification of meanings. In Chinese, two words — "甜" (Tian) and "甘" (Gan) — also have differences in emotional coloring. Russian Russian translation If we take as a basis the meaning of the word "sweet" and compare it with the Chinese words "甜" (Tian) and "甘" (Gan), then we can see that "甜" (Tian) has more common features with the Russian lexeme than "甘" (Gan).

In Russian, the lexeme "sweet" is sometimes used as an affectionate address to people, especially children, whereas in Chinese, the lexeme "甜" (Tian) is more often used to describe a person's appearance or character. The lexeme "甘" (Gan) is usually not used in this sense. In addition, in Chinese, "甜" (Tian) can also mean "work" or "benefit."

A comparative analysis of the Russian lexeme "sweetness" and the Chinese lexemes "甜" (Tian) and "甘" (Gan) revealed a high degree of consistency in the designations of taste sensation, the uniqueness and complementarity of these words in the cultural context, emotional expression and social functions were investigated. Interlanguage differences are manifested in partial similarities or in significant differences in linguistic and cultural connotations resulting from the influence of cultural factors that determine the representation and place of the lexeme "sweetness" in Russian and Chinese, as an expression and keeper of cultural information and knowledge about the world.