On the dictionary representation of phraseological units in Russian and Chinese lexicography

Aleksandrikova Lina Postgraduate student; Graduate School of Translation (Faculty); Lomonosov Moscow State University 1 Leninskie Gory str., Moscow, 119991, Russia alexandrikova.lina@yandex.ru

Introduction

Russian Russian dictionary The article is devoted to the comparison of the history of the development of the representation of phraseological units in Russian and Chinese linguistic dictionaries, and the basis of the comparison is the material of the Russian language.

In modern Russian, phraseology is understood as "the general name of semantically related combinations of words and sentences, which, unlike syntactic structures similar to them in form, are not produced in accordance with the general patterns of choice and combination of words in the organization of utterance, but are reproduced in speech in a fixed ratio of semantic structure and a certain lexico-grammatical composition."" ^{[1, p. 48]}. In Chinese, the most well–known type of phraseological units are chengyu: "Chengyu - letters. "ready–made expression" is a phenomenon in Chinese phraseology, which means processed, reduced to a certain quantitative form, semantically updated idiomatic expressions with generalized figurative meaning, the source material for which are free turns of speech – quotations from classical books, proverbs, historical facts, parables, legends, etc."^{[2, p. 28]}.

As you know, Chinese lexicography has a longer history than Russian lexicography, and the same applies to phraseography. The historical aspect of this study led to the fact that the author of the article had to talk not only about phraseological units in the modern sense of the word and Chinese chengyu, but also the need to mention proverbs and sayings in Russian dictionaries and idioms (成语), proverbs (谚语), non-utterances(歇后语), phraseological combinations (惯用) and sayings (俗语) in Chinese dictionaries. In this regard, it should be noted that the differentiation of phraseological units and aphorisms (proverbs, sayings and catch words) occurred only in the late 1970s.

The subject of research in this article is Russian dictionaries of phraseological units and Chinese dictionaries of Chengyu. The research was conducted to identify similarities and differences in the representation of phraseological units /chengyu in Russian and Chinese lexicography. The main research method is the comparative method. The novelty of the research consists, firstly, in the fact that in China the first aspect phraseological dictionaries appeared long before similar dictionaries in Russia, and, secondly, in the fact that the development of phraseography in Russia is associated with progress in linguistic science, and in China with cultural tradition.

Phraseographic tradition in Russia

As you know, in 1773, the "Church Dictionary or Interpretation of the sayings of the Slavonic Ancients, as well as those in foreign languages without translation in the Holy Scriptures and other Church books" by P. A. Alekseev was published in Moscow, in which detailed information about where it was found and illustrative examples were given about each word. The author of the dictionary included short stories and anecdotes in the dictionary entry. Phraseological combinations were given for some words, and sometimes the headline words were expressed in phraseological units, for example: flesh and blood, shake the dust off your feet, there are about 700 such combinations in the dictionary ^[3]. It should be noted that, according to modern researchers, "such biblical combinations were not perceived by P. A. Alekseev as stable (in the full sense of the word), since by that time the tradition of "home reading" of Holy Scripture in Russia was just emerging. They acquire a phraseological character in a later period (including under the influence of the "Church Dictionary"). At least, P. A. Alekseev does not make special notes regarding these combinations, indicating their phraseological nature" ^{[4, pp. 80-81]}.

The scientific literature indicates that in the XVIII–XIX centuries a new approach to linguistic realities appeared, which was reflected in the works of lexicographers. Thus, from 1783 to 1794, work was carried out on the Dictionary of the Russian Academy of Sciences (hereinafter referred to as the Dictionary), this work is considered one of the most important stages in the development of Russian phraseography, since a separate lexicographic development was devoted to phraseology in the Dictionary, as a result, more than two thousand phraseological units were included in the Dictionary ^{[5, p. 260]}. At the same time, in the preface to the Dictionary it was stated that its task is "to explain words, sayings, speeches and various ways of broadcasting in the Slavonic language" ^{[6, p. 3]}. There is something in the Dictionary that will later be called a phraseological unit, for example: what God has sent is qualified as a questionable "utterance" among industrialists, and especially fish and animal, about a trapped animal or fish ^{[6, p. 252]}, hanging by a thread, on a thread is qualified as "broadcasting" or "image of broadcasting", used to mean an approaching fall, misfortune ^{[6, p. 723]}, dilute the throat, pour the throat, shut the throat is qualified as an "expression" ^{[7, p. 87]}, and do not look a gift horse in the mouth is qualified as a "proverb" ^{[7, p. 466]}.

In the "Dictionary of Church Slavonic and Russian," compiled by the Second Department of the Imperial Academy of Sciences and published in 1847, the preface states that it is necessary "to explain words both in the proper and figurative sense; the figurative meaning means an asterisk, and add all special expressions, for example. At the word God: with God! God be with you! Expressions that make up the features of the language should be separated from definitions and examples by a line" ^{[8, p. 13]}. All "special expressions", which included phraseological units, for example: to gain time, not to take out the trash from the hut, were placed at the end of the dictionary entry and were not delimited in any way ^{[9, p. 4]}.

In 1880, the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V. I. Dahl was published, in which there is an explanation for the word "phraseology", it is located under the word "Phrase", and has the following interpretation – "the peculiarity of the turns of speech of the language, and the teaching about it" ^{[10, p. 554]}.

In 1873, I. I. Sreznevsky's article "Remarks on the formation of words from expressions" was published. In it, the scientist wrote that "expressions in most cases are a connection of words combined into one whole at the request of thought and the grammatical structure of the language; for example: welcome, forever and ever, dashing kind Well done, red maiden, my dear sir, for good and well, what a man to become, a chamber of wit, not a drop, no doubt, at the very least, under a bushel, etc." ^{[11, p. 5]}. In a footnote to the above definition, the linguist expressed his doubts about the correctness of using the term "expression" and wrote that "it may not be completely appropriate to call these word connections expressions; perhaps another word can be found that conveniently replaces the word expression in this case: I use it out of old habit" ^{[11, p. 5]}. I. I. Sreznevsky classified "expressions" based on their grammatical characteristics, for example: verbs – to do business, to crush water, adjectives – glad to see, day to day, darkness to darkness, nouns – forever and ever, no dawn, no light, etc. The scientist noted that many "expressions" always remain in the same meaning, while others eventually take on a completely different meaning from the original one, for example: to die laughing, to bet, etc. ^{[11, p. 5-6]}. In addition, I. I. Sreznevsky drew attention to the fact that there are "expressions" that never change their form, for example: it's not much to look at on bare feet, and some people change "as needed," for example: to remember and remember evil, do not remember evil, whoever remembers evil will look out ^{[11, p. 6]}. In his "Materials for the dictionary of the Old Russian language" of 1893, "expressions" are given in dictionary entries after interpretation and indication of sources, for example, in the dictionary entry for the wordBelow are such "expressions" asGod knows, God knows: — God only knows. Novg. 1l. 6717g. God knows. Whence will come to us for our sins. vol. 6902 ^{[12, p. 138]}. Modern Russian researchers also note that in Sreznevsky's work, "techniques for selecting and lexicographing stable combinations known in the language of past eras were developed for the first time; later these techniques were used in historical dictionaries of the Russian language of various types." <...>, Sreznevsky's "Materials for the dictionary of the Old Russian language" can rightfully be called the beginning of Slavic-Russian historical phraseography" ^{[13, p. 678]}.

In 1902-1904, M. I. Mikhelson's collection "Russian Thought and Speech. Your own and someone else's. The experience of Russian phraseology. A collection of figurative words and parables." In the preface to the work, the scientist emphasized that "phraseology" is a set of words and expressions that are characterized by allegory, distinguishing them from the rest of the vocabulary of the language: "There is a dual way of expressing thoughts.: we define a concept or clothe a thought with words in their literal sense, or allegorically, with insinuations, hints, comparisons with figurative words suitable in meaning, or even whole sayings, in the form of separate phrases, proverbial expressions, sayings, proverbs and well-known quotations" ^{[14, p. 7]}. In the collection of M. I. Mikhelson, there are such "expressions" as: God gave, and God took – (in Russian) on the submission of the Holy Spirit. Fishing ^{[14, p. 50]}, God is your judge – you will answer to God for your evil deeds ^{[14, p. 51]}. Many of the "expressions" in the collection were accompanied by reference marks "cf." and "see", which allowed readers to get the most complete picture of the "expression", for example: Barrel of Danaid – unproductive labor <...> See You can't fill a bottomless tub with water. See Bottomless barrel ^{[14, p. 56]}. There are also marks in the collection indicating the coloring of the "expression", for example, "brann.", "joke.": The uncouth (blockhead) – (in Russian, brann.) rude, ill-mannered, with rough manners ^{[14, p. 511]}.

According to V. N. Telia, the heyday of phraseology in Russian linguistics occurred in the late 1940s and early 1960s of the twentieth century, and is largely associated with the ideas of V. V. Vinogradov, whose ideas were adopted and continued by his followers. By the mid-1960s, phraseology in Russian linguistics began to take shape in As a separate independent discipline, this period is considered classical ^{[15, pp. 11-12]}.

The development of the theory of phraseology contributed to the revision of the approach to the lexicography of phraseological units. In 1967, the "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian language" by A. I. Molotkov was published, the dictionary body consists of 4 thousand dictionary entries, each dictionary entry is provided with the meaning of the phraseological unit, its grammatical characteristics, the way of using the components included in its composition, for some phraseological units etymological information and stylistic marks are given, for example, "disapproval.": Balalaika. A stringless balalaika. Disapproved. He is a very talkative person, an empty-minded person. ^{[16, p. 32]}. Russian Russian Phraseological Dictionary is considered to be the first proper phraseological dictionary of the Russian language and has several significant differences from previous phraseological dictionaries ^{[17, p. 299]}. For the first time, an attempt was made to show the various forms of phraseological units, interpret their various meanings, and use quotations from works of Russian fiction of the 19th and 20th centuries as examples. It is interesting to note that the materials for compiling this dictionary began to be collected back in pre-revolutionary Russia ^{[16, p. 6]}.

In subsequent years, during the postclassic period of phraseology development in the 1970s and 1980s, scientists began to consider phraseology in a functional and semantic way, and the differentiation of phraseological expressions and aphorisms (proverbs, sayings and catch words) led to the creation of a number of different dictionaries. Russian Russian Phraseological Dictionary by N. M. Shansky and E. A. Bystrova (1977), Educational Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language for National Schools by N. M. Shansky and E. A. Bystrova (1979), Russian Proverbs, Sayings and catch phrases. Russian Russian Dictionary" by V. P. Felitsina and Yu. E. Prokhorov edited by E. M. Vereshchagin and V. G. Kostomarov (1979), "School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian language" by V. P. Zhukov (1980), "Dictionary of Russian Phraseology" by R. I. Yarantsev (1980) and others ^{[18, pp. 4-5]}

The 21st century in Russian lexicography was marked by the emergence of a new generation of phraseological dictionaries. One of these dictionaries was the dictionary of V. N. Telia, the founder of the Moscow School of Phraseology, published in 2006, "The Great Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language. Meaning. Usage. Cultural commentary". The corpus of dictionary entries contains and describes about 1,500 phraseological units, which for the first time in lexicographic practice are grouped into semantic "nests". In the preface to the dictionary, V. N. Telia pointed out that this is "the first phraseological dictionary in world practice, which aims to describe in lexicographic form the most commonly used phraseological units of the Russian language, based on the generally accepted opinion that phraseological units are the most culturally rich units of language capable of acting as signs of the "language" of culture. – a different sign system than natural language" ^{[19, p. 7]}. One of the main innovations in this dictionary was a new way of interpreting phraseological units, in which the dictionary entry began to consist of three complementary parts.: 1) The value ("zone"). This part is a description of the phraseological unit and its correlation with the situation indicated by the phraseological unit, the participants in the situation, their socio-linguistic intentions and emotionally colored attitude to the situation, there is also a "zone" of grammatical features of phraseological units. 2) Usage. This part describes in detail the verbal use of phraseology, contains illustrations (examples of usage from various written sources inherent in modern Russian). 3) Cultural commentary. This section is devoted to the "cultural and iconic" component, describes the iconic meanings of the "language" of culture as a special sphere of awareness of the world, directly related to a person's self-image, moral values. Cultural commentary appeared for the first time in the world phraseographic practice ^{[19, p. 7]}.

In conclusion, it can be concluded that the development of the Russian phraseographic tradition went parallel with the development of phraseology as a science and has the following stages: 1) 1770-1880s – at this stage, the prerequisites for the development of phraseology as a science appeared, dictionary compilers drew attention to proverbs and sayings that have long been a part of people's lives, due to the differences in their internal forms, there was a need to create a proper phraseological dictionary. In the second half of the 19th century, phraseological units received their first extensive lexicographic development in the Dictionary of the Russian Academy of Sciences; 2) the 1900s and 1940s were the stage of the gradual formation of phraseology as a separate linguistic discipline with its own lexicographic development, at the same time the first prototypes of phraseological dictionaries began to appear, principles for describing phraseological units in dictionary entries were developed; 3) the 1950s and 1960s the 1970s and 1980s were the classic stage of phraseology, which led to the development of science and a breakthrough in the field of lexicography of phraseological units – the creation of the very first phraseological dictionary, the Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language by A. I. Molotkov; 4) the 1970s and 1980s were the postclassical stage of phraseology, which was marked by the release of a significant number of phraseological dictionaries, dictionaries of proverbs and sayings, educational phraseological 5) 1990 – the last stage, which continues to this day, was marked by the release of a new type of phraseological dictionaries, which began with the "Big Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language. Meaning. Usage. Cultural commentary" by V. N. Telii.

Phraseographic tradition in China

The number of scientific papers devoted to phraseology increased significantly after 1949. The works of famous linguists, in particular, Ma Guofan, Xu Guoqing, Sun Changxu, Sui Weizhang, and others were published after the 1950s, becoming the basis for the further development of Chinese phraseology. Chinese researcher Lou Jotun, for example, notes that "汉语成语词典中对"成语" 的收录，取决于人们对"成语" 的认识。从历时角度看，我们可以把人们对成语的人是分为三个时期--前期（1911年以前）、中期 （1912-1949）、近期（1950—目前）" ^{[20, p. 141]} 'The inclusion of "chengyu" in the dictionary of Chinese idioms is due to people's understanding of what "chengyu" is. From a diachronistic point of view, it is possible to divide people's understanding of "Chengyu" into three periods – early (before 1911), intermediate (1912-1949), modern (1950 – present). The stages outlined by the scientist reflect the years that witnessed the greatest historical upheavals for China (1911 – Xinhai Revolution, 1949 G. – the proclamation of the People's Republic of China), these dates do not quite coincide with the periodization of the development of Chinese phraseography presented by modern scholars.

Chinese researchers identify four periods in the development of Chinese phraseography: 1) 1742-1948 – the initial stage; 2) 1949-1980 – the stage of in-depth study of phraseological units and idioms in China; 3) 1981-2000 – the period of active publication of phraseological dictionaries, complicating their classification; 4) XXI century – the heyday of Chinese phraseography ^{[21, pp. 68-76]}. It should be noted that, as in the case of the Russian phraseographic tradition, the prototypes of the first Chengyu dictionaries appeared in China long before the dates mentioned.

References to the first collections of proverbs and sayings in China date back to the Song era (X–XIII centuries), the first collection of proverbs was called "Ancient and Modern Proverbs", its compiler was Zhou Shou-zhong, the collection itself was lost, but information about it remained in historical records. Later, the number of such collections grew, since the XV century. collections of proverbs and sayings have become much more numerous, one of such famous works, information about which has survived to the present day, was Du Wen-lan's collection "Ancient Songs and Proverbs", based on "aphoristic works from all known historical, philosophical, poetic, medical, agronomic and other works" ^{[22, p. 105]}.

It is believed that the first official lexicographic source devoted to the systematization of Chengyu was the reference book "Phraseological Units of six Departments" (1742). Six departments is a common name for the central administrative bodies of China that existed from the reign of the Sui and Tang dynasties to the end of the Qing Dynasty. These departments were as follows: the Department of Ranks, the Department of Taxes, the Department of Rituals, the Department of Military Affairs, the Judicial Department and the Department of Public Works. The Chengyu in this dictionary were also distributed by departments, according to calculations, "the Department of Ranks section contains 420 words and expressions, the Department of Taxes section contains 801 words and expressions, the Department of Rituals section contains 156 words and expressions, the Department of Military Affairs section contains 308 words and expressions, the judicial department section contains 568 words and expressions, The Department of Public Works section contains 319 words and expressions. A total of 2,572 words and expressions" ^{[23, p. 2]}. Despite the fact that the name of the dictionary indicates that it is a dictionary of chengyu, a significant part of the expressions given there are ordinary words consisting of two hieroglyphs, and not four–component chengyu with figurative meanings, for example, 记录 (jì lù) – the method of encouraging officials during the Qing Dynasty (entry) ^{[23, p. 13]}, 签筒 (qiān t ǒ ng) – a bamboo tube containing bamboo sticks used to draw lots for officials in the Qing Dynasty ^{[23, p. 16]}. Nevertheless, some of the chengyu in this dictionary have survived to the present day, for example, chengyu: 出陈新新 (chū chén yì xīn) – literally "get rid of the old and introduce the new", figuratively this idiom was used to describe innovations. A more detailed examination of this work allows us to conclude that the hieroglyphs contained in it were not the chengyu characters to which we are accustomed, however, the significance of this dictionary lies in the fact that it was the first attempt to systematize phraseological units of the Chinese language and create appropriate dictionaries ^{[24, pp. 49-55]}.

The lexicographic works on Chinese phraseology that followed the "Phraseological Units of the Six Departments" became more voluminous in content, however, they remained relatively simple, most of the material contained in them did not relate to chengyu, but to simple words and various kinds of designations, as in previous dictionaries. It is interesting to note that during the Qing Dynasty, "collections of proverbs of individual localities of China were created; for example, "Collection of Proverbs of the Yue area" (modern Zhejiang Province). But it was not until 1927 that Shi Xiang-tsai compiled the first large collection, The Sea of Chinese Proverbs (more than 12,000 issues). This collection remains the largest to this day" ^{[22, p. 105]}. The "Sea of Chinese Proverbs" can be called an exception to the rule, since, as a rule, the issued dictionaries of that time numbered less than five thousand units. For example, the Practical Dictionary of Chengyu, published in 1937, included more than two thousand frequently occurring Chengyu. Most of them consisted of two or four parts, but the two-syllabic constructions were mostly simple words, not chengyu. The dictionaries published during this period did not have the consistency and harmony in the presentation of the material that we are used to seeing in modern dictionaries, many chengyu were limited to interpretation alone ^{[21, pp. 68-76]}.

At the next stage of the development of Chinese phraseography (from 1949 to 1980), three large dictionaries of Chengyu were published, in which the structure of the presentation of the material changed, so that the interpretation in them became more complete and detailed. In the Short Dictionary of Chengyu, published in 1952, each of the listed chengyu had not only an interpretation, but also readings and usage examples, some of the chengyu had their origin story. It is interesting to note that in Chinese, the myth (the story of the origin of chengyu) is often chengyu himself, as, for example, in the case of the idiom: 画蛇添足 (huà shé tián zú) - literally "to draw a snake's legs", mod. "to do too much, to overdo it". Many of the idioms mentioned in dictionaries at that time remain relevant and are still used in everyday Chinese speech ^{[21, pp. 68-76]}.

From 1967 to 1977, a Cultural Revolution took place in China, affecting all spheres of people's lives. Dictionaries have also undergone some changes: "During this period, the total number of scientific publications was small, and most of them had to explain the facts found in the works of Chairman Mao Zedong. These include, for example, "Selected notes on phraseological units" ^{[24, pp. 49-55]}. Over time, a new type of phraseological dictionaries appeared, it was created for a specific group of users, namely for students. In 1980 Gao Guangle published a "Dictionary of common phraseological units for secondary school students", it contained more than a thousand units, the dictionary entry of each chengyu had not only interpretation, but also reading, and usage examples. ^{[24, pp. 49-55]}.

After 1980, the number of works on phraseography increased significantly, and the structure of dictionary entries underwent changes. Modern Russian scholars refer to the most prominent phraseological dictionaries the following works: "the"Great dictionary of Chinese idioms" (汉语成语大词典, 1985), "the Great dictionary of classification of Chinese idioms" (汉语成语分类大词典, 1987), "classification dictionary of idioms" (成语 应用分类词典, 1987), edited by Jian Zhi (践之), "a classification Dictionary of Chinese idioms" (汉语成语分类词典, 1987), edited by E Zysun (叶子雄), "the Great dictionary of classification of Chinese idioms" (中国 成语分类大词典, 1989), edited by Han Sanji (韩省之). When compiling the above-mentioned dictionaries, new methods of indexing and arrangement were used, for example, in the Dictionary of Classification of Chinese Phraseological Units, phraseological units have already been systematized in accordance with their meanings, content and usage habits, the dictionary also contains an index of the number of hieroglyphic features, an index of interpretation of phraseological units" ^{[24, pp. 49-55]}.

Speaking about the last stage of the development of Chinese phraseological dictionaries, which is still ongoing, it should be noted that in recent years a large number of Chengyu dictionaries have been released. This is due to the active language policy of the state and the development of all areas of society. In 2015, the "Dictionary of Ten Thousand Chengyu" was published in Beijing, it included about twenty thousand dictionary entries, both modern and ancient Chengyu, the dictionary entries provide reading, microstructure, interpretation, usage examples, synonyms and antonyms, as well as the scope ^{[21, pp. 68-76]}.

Among modern dictionaries, the one published in 2012 has gained popularity among readers. "The Great Dictionary of Chengyu". This edition, which is an expanded version of the first edition published in 2004, contains even more chengyu. As noted by modern lexicographers: "In total, the Great Chengyu Dictionary contains eighteen thousand phraseological units and twenty-six thousand hieroglyphs. The dictionary's articles now contain semantic, stylistic, and grammatical characteristics of idioms, as well as cultural and etymological commentary. Phraseological units found in the most authoritative publications of recent years have been used as examples" ^{[21, pp. 68-76]}.

In conclusion, we can conclude that the phraseographic tradition of China dates back to the 10th century, when the prototypes of modern phraseological dictionaries known to us were already collections consisting not only of chengyu with figurative meaning, but also of ordinary words and expressions. In China, there has long been a tradition of compiling thematic and subject dictionaries of Chengyu, such as the collection "Phraseological units of six departments", in which the corpus of dictionary entries is divided into sections according to departments. Different scholars distinguish different periods in the development of phraseography in China, however, the identification of stages in development is more likely due not to the development of linguistic science, as in Russia, but to a long-standing cultural tradition.

Conclusion

The analysis allows us to come to the following conclusions:

1) Chengyu began to be recorded in Chinese dictionaries earlier than phraseological units in Russian dictionaries. The first collection of proverbs in China dates back to the 10th century, while in Russian linguistics the first dictionary in which phraseological combinations appeared dates back only to the end of the 18th century.

2) Aspect phraseological dictionaries appeared in China earlier than in Russia. While in Russia phraseological units had just received their first lexicographic development in the Dictionary of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1783-1794), in China there was already a full–fledged thematic collection of phraseological units - "Phraseological units of six departments" (1742), the words and chengyu given in it were grouped by topic, in accordance with departments (departments of ranks, taxes, rituals, military affairs, judicial department and public works department), in Russia the first aspect phraseological dictionaries appeared only after several centuries, towards the end of the XX century.

3) If in Russia the development of phraseography is connected with the development of linguistic science, then in China the development of phraseography is rather due to a long cultural tradition.