The use of cryogenic resources by participants of scientific research expeditions to the Arctic regions of Yakutia. The end of the XIX – the first quarter of the XX centuries.

Suleymanov Aleksandr Albertovich ORCID: 0000-0001-8746-258X PhD in History Senior Researcher, Institute for Humanities Research and Indigenous Studies of the North of Siberian branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences 677027, Russia, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Yakutsk, Petrovsky str., 1, room 403 alexas1306@gmail.com Other publications by this author

Introduction. Modern geopolitical realities, characterized by the aggravation of international relations, have led to an intensification of discussions about the place and role of Russia in the world community and world history, and the search for its "correct" (self-) identification. In this context, probably also in the light of the growing popularity of ideas about the countries of the Global South. RAS A.V. Golovnev develops a promising hypothesis about the northernness of Russia ^[6]. In this regard, it seems relevant to turn to understanding the various aspects of the life of the population of our country, which most prominently allow us to show its original "northern features". At the same time, a promising area of work for historians is the reconstruction of various subjects from the rich domestic experience of scientific study of high latitudes.

Located north of the Arctic Circle, the Arctic zone of the largest subject of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), has been attracting the attention of researchers for about three centuries, i.e. almost since the organization of the 300th anniversary of the leading scientific center of our country, the Russian Academy of Sciences, which celebrated its 300th anniversary in 2024.

Thus, in Polar Yakutia, part of the research of the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) expedition of 1733-1743 was carried out. The Lena-Yenisei detachment, for example, aimed to survey the Arctic coast from the Lena Delta to the Yenisei. The participants of the Lena-Kolyma detachment, on the contrary, carried out research from the Lena Delta to the east – along the coastal zone of the East Siberian Sea to the mouth of the Indigirka and further to the Anadyr River ^{[14, pp. 65-90]}. Later, members of the Northeastern expedition of I. I. Billings and G. G. Sarychev 1785-1794, the expedition of M. I. Adams 1806-1807, the Yansk-Kolyma expedition of F. P. Wrangel - P. F. worked in the Arctic regions of Yakutia. Anjou 1820-1824, etc. ^{[25, pp. 37-92]}.

Such interest of the scientific community in research in the region, of course, is not accidental. A significant part of the programs of most of the above-mentioned initiatives was somehow connected with clarifying the possibility of navigation from the European part of Russia through the Arctic seas to Far Eastern ports. A significant part of the route of such a route would naturally run along the northern coast of Yakutia. Another important driving force of the researchers was the search for territories and water areas that had not yet been mapped. By that time, it was the polar regions of the Earth that provided such an opportunity to the greatest extent. In addition, the researchers were interested in the traditional culture and lifestyle of representatives of the indigenous ethnic communities inhabiting Arctic Yakutia – Yakuts (Sakha), Chukchi, Evenks, Evens, Yukaghirs and Russian Arctic old-timers. The above-mentioned expedition of M.I. Adams had the main purpose of excavating the remains of a mammoth. A similar interest in the Pleistocene fauna, as well as in the modern animal and plant worlds, of which the region is rich in unique samples, will be characteristic for subsequent periods of scientific study of the Arctic regions of Yakutia. Towards the end of the 19th century, the focus of research attention on the geological study of high latitudes is clearly manifested, which initially had a purely scientific interest, and later also acquired an applied character aimed at searching for mineral deposits, the rich reserves of which, obviously, have not been explored to the proper extent to this day.

It was from the last decades of the century before last, or more precisely from the work within the framework of the First International Polar Year (1882-1883), that the implementation of various scientific research initiatives in the Arctic regions acquired a rather rhythmic character. In fact, during this period there was a surge in the interest of scientists to work in Polar Yakutia, which was in the general wake of an increase in the intensity of research activities in high latitudes in the world. Regular surveys, which were not interrupted even during the Civil War (for example, F. A. Matisen's hydrographic expedition to the mouths of the Lena and Olenka in 1919), had their apotheosis already in the Soviet period, the largest for its time Yakut complex expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences 1925-1930, the sheer scale of which forces researchers to consider it separately from other works scientists. In this regard, the time period from the early 1880s to the mid-1920s should be considered as an independent period in the history of scientific study of the Arctic regions of Yakutia. This article will be dedicated to him.

Expeditions to the Arctic Yakutia during this period, as, of course, others, took place in extremely specific and difficult natural and climatic conditions. Winter time in the region lasts about 8 months. At the same time, air temperature indicators regularly drop below -60 ° C. It is no coincidence that it is in the Arctic zone of Yakutia that one of the settlements claiming to be the Pole of Cold in the Northern hemisphere of the Earth is located – the city of Verkhoyansk. The minimum recorded air temperature in it is -67.8 °C and falls just during the period under consideration (1885) ^{[8, p. 95]}.

Working in such conditions required researchers not only strength and courage, but also extensive interaction with the local population. The latter provided, along with material support, including escort on routes, food supplies and, in some cases, equipment, also assistance in the form of transfer of traditional knowledge, including experience in practical use of cryogenic resources in the life process – material objects and forces of nature exploited by society, the origin and development of which is due to the sphere of cold (medium temperature below 0 °C) ^{[1, p. 85]}.

In this regard, it should be noted that the traditional practices of the indigenous peoples of the northern territories of Russia on the use of cryogenic resources have recently come into the focus of scientists' focused attention. The anthropological turn that has taken place "facing" the cold is primarily related to the research of Tyumen scientists (headed by academician V. P. Melnikov) and the development of a new philosophical direction in ontology – cryosophy. Within the framework of cryosophy, the cold matter of the Earth is considered as an active element of the universe, a source of benefits and opportunities for humanity ^{[10; 11; 12, etc.]}. Representatives of the cryosophical school and, first of all, R. Y. Fedorov, on the materials of Western and Eastern Siberia, show the importance of cryogenic resources in the life of the local population, consider the practices of exploitation by indigenous peoples the study of phenomena related to natural cold ^{[13; 22; 27, etc.]}.

Based on the materials of Yakutia, the historical and anthropological analysis of the experience of the region's population using cold, snow, ice and "permafrost" in their economic and household practices was first presented in a number of works by the author of this article, prepared during the implementation of the project supported in 2017. The Russian Scientific Foundation (RNF) of the project "Cold Resources": the importance of low temperatures in the economic and socio-cultural practices of rural communities of Yakutia" ^{[19; 20, etc.]}. Later, these studies formed the basis of the project "Anthropology of cold: natural low temperatures in the life support system of rural communities of Yakutia (traditional practices, modern challenges and adaptation strategies)", which also received support from the RNF during 2019-2024. The project was focused on understanding the evolution of the role and positions of the cold sphere in the culture and life support system of the population of the Arctic and Subarctic territories

Materials and

^{[5; 9; 18; 23; 28 One of the main results of the work was the identification of the importance of the exploitation of cryogenic resources as an important adaptation mechanism of indigenous peoples to local natural and geographical realities. At the same time, within the framework of these studies, it was noted that mainly issues related to the experience of using cryogenic resources in the functioning of locally established life support systems were analyzed. The practices of their operation in the implementation of activities initiated by external forces, including scientific expeditions, have not been previously considered. In this regard, the purpose of this article is an attempt to at least partially fill the specified historiographical gap and reconstruct the practices of using cryogenic resources during the expeditionary research conducted in the Arctic regions of Yakutia during the 1880s - mid–1920s. Materials and methods. To achieve this goal, a set of source material was attracted, which includes documents from the funds of the State Archive of the Irkutsk Region, the St. Petersburg branch of the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) and the Manuscript Fund of the Archive of the Yakut Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch (RFA YANC SB) of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as scientific works published following the results of the research under consideration. Special methods of historical cognition were used in the analysis of this range of sources. The methodological basis for the development of the topic was the application of the noted principles laid down in cryosophy and anthropology of cold. In connection with the mentioned use of materials from the RFA YANC SB RAS, the author thanks the CCF FITZ YANC SB RAS for the opportunity to conduct research on the scientific equipment of the Center. Results and discussion. At the International Polar Conference held in August 1881 in St. Petersburg, it was decided to conduct coordinated surveys in the Arctic and Antarctic within the framework of the International Polar Year and to participate in them scientists from 9 countries of the world. To carry out the research, it was planned to create 14 polar stations, including 3 located in Sodankulya in the Grand Duchy of Finland, Small Karmakuli on Novaya Zemlya and on Sagastyr Island in the Lena Delta, on the territory of the Russian Empire. The work at the Sagastyrskaya station was carried out by the participants of the Lena polar expedition under the leadership of D. N. Jurgens. The scientists were trained at the Pulkovo Astronomical, Pavlovsky Magnetic Meteorological and Main Physical Observatories, where meteorological instruments for observations at the station were simultaneously checked [26, pp. 82-85]}.

At the same time, active preparatory activities were carried out to solve organizational issues, including the selection of the optimal type of room for the station and observation pavilions. In this regard, quite a lot of work was carried out to interview people who had relevant competencies in terms of living in the Arctic regions of Yakutia, including clerics. In particular, Bishop Dionysius of Yakutia in one of his letters described in detail the methods of heat preservation and, in general, the construction of dwellings in Polar Yakutia. In particular, instead of glasses, as Dionysius noted, ice floes were inserted in winter "a quarter of an arshin thick" and measuring "one arshin high, and three-quarters of an arshin wide, and most of the square tops". At night, these "ice windows" were covered from the inside with special plates. The houses themselves "on Bykov (Bykov Cape – A.S.), in Ustyansk and in the Russian Mouth" were built in an oblong shape and had 5 compartments, including a separate storage room in case of a blizzard of food and ice supplies ^{[7, l. 5 vol.]}. Ice, which was harvested in Yakutia, as a rule, late In autumn, it served as a source of drinking and industrial water in winter in reservoirs nearby to settlements. Ice holes, including due to the thickness of ice on rivers and lakes, especially in the Arctic regions, were far from always possible to use, and another solution to the "drinking problem", which will be discussed below, was also quite specific.

Interestingly, the residential building built for researchers on Sagastyr was divided into 5 rooms, one of which was a storeroom with weekly provisions ^{[4, p. 38]}. In addition, a glacier was built next to the station ^{[4, p. 39]} – a structure in the thickness of the "permafrost", which allows storing food in a frozen state, which has a special name in the Yakut language (buluus). In particular, its use guaranteed the participants of the survey relative safety in terms of food supply. So, A. A. Bunge noted in this regard: "we were diligently engaged in fishing in our bayou; especially our two sailors, both Arkhangelsk industrialists who visited Novaya Zemlya in previous years, fished with great success. Thanks to the abundance of fish, we had the opportunity, despite our small nets, to stock up on enough of it for the whole winter" ^{[4, p. 44]}.

The above-mentioned practices of using cryogenic resources by research participants in Polar Yakutia allow us to supplement the work of the Russian Polar Expedition (RPE) of 1900-1902. The expedition, led by E. V. Toll, was the largest Russian polar initiative of its time and had to solve a number of important scientific, economic and political tasks. In particular, to explore the eastern coast of the Taimyr Peninsula – previously very little studied, as well as the Novosibirsk Islands, from where to try to find Sannikov Land, which has become legendary in many ways due to the tragic end of the REE. After that, the expedition members were to head through the Bering Strait to Vladivostok, which would help resolve the issue of through passage along the Northern Sea Route. The expedition was also important from the point of view of Russia's geopolitical interests and strengthening its position in the Arctic region. The previous foreign polar expeditions of the 70s - 80s of the XIX century were considered by their organizers as an important national cause.

The history of the organization of food depots for themselves and other polar researchers along the route of their work, the conditions in which, due to the climatic features of the Arctic and permafrost, allowed food to be preserved and preserved in an edible state for many decades, is quite correlated with the subject of the article ^{[21, pp. 220-221; 26, p. 76]}. However, this story is quite well known, and the author does not consider it advisable to dwell on it in detail.

It seems necessary to pay more attention to the transport component of the expedition. Despite the fact that the main method of movement of researchers was by sea, and the main means of transport was the yacht Zarya, quite long land routes were carried out during the research within the framework of the REE. These routes were mainly covered by dog sledding. To reduce the friction force at the same time, increase the speed of movement and load capacity of the sleds, the runners of the latter were covered with a crust of ice.

E. V. Toll left a fairly detailed description of such a technology practiced by the indigenous peoples of the Russian Arctic. Thus, the scientist noted some delays in preparing for expedition trips due to the fact that "the sled runners, which must be covered with ice, must first lie in the water for a long time, otherwise the ice layer will not hold on the tree" ^{[21, p. 72]}. Such a "cryogenic lubricant" had to be updated daily on the way. To do this, after arriving at the place of overnight stay, the sleigh was turned over and then the runners were wiped with cloth soaked in water. E. V. Toll also noted the consequences of ignoring this practice: "it is difficult for dogs to carry sleds with ice-covered runners on uneven rough ice or soft snow, and then they have to reduce the load" ^{[21, p. 90]}.

It makes sense to supplement the above evidence with data from astronomer E. F. Skvortsov, a participant in the Lensk-Kolyma expedition of 1909. This expedition was connected with the need to provide reliable supplies to the Arctic regions of Yakutia and, in this regard, to organize regular steamship flights from the Far Eastern ports of Russia to the mouth of the Kolyma. In this regard, a general description of the coasts, a survey of the coastline and astronomical research were required, among other things ^{[24, p. 145]}.

In the course of fulfilling the task assigned to him, E. F. Skvortsov made a rather strenuous route from Yakutsk to the north of Yakutia through Verkhoyansk and Kazachye village to the village of Russian Mouth on Indigirka. During the trip, the researcher kept a diary in which he recorded a number of accurate and colorful observations, including those concerning the experience of using cryogenic resources.

Thus, characterizing the mentioned practice of increasing the degree of sliding of the sled runners, E. F. Skvortsov noted that it has a special definition – "freezing the runners". The need to implement such a practice, given that the route to the Russian Mouth from Yakutsk was made in April – May 1909, i.e. during the spring thaw in the north of Yakutia, led to the fact that the expedition members decided to move at night. The following entry made by E. F. Skvortsov is also of interest in this regard: "Our camp presents an interesting picture, it occupied an area of about 200 square meters. fathoms (900 sq . m . m); three tents, six sleds turned upside down with runners in order to melt the ice and so that in the evening they could be iced with new ice, two branches – that's what small light boats are called – and 84 dogs, who settled down to rest in all sorts of poses. The luggage is all stacked from the sled to the snow" ^{[17, l. 68]}.

In general, the researcher's diary provides a comprehensive description of the practices of using cryogenic resources. For example, during the return trip to Yakutsk from the Russian Mouth, which began in September, i.e. before the ice break, the researchers encountered the problem of rivers crossing their path. One of the most serious obstacles was the Martin Channel, the overcoming of which, eloquently testifying to the transport value of cryogenic resources, as well as the skills of conscious management of them among the local old-timers, the researcher described in rich and lively language: "September 23 (October 6) are joyful, because we wake up from the cold, and once it is frost in the Urals, it is clear That he also froze our Martin. The frost is stronger! Free us from all these Martins, Dyalbirgyals and Chandons and all the owls that are still on our way! And in order to use the services of frost better, they also came up with the idea of making an artificial bridge out of ice, pouring water on the chosen line leading to the other shore. Our workers went to water the ice and did a lot of work during the day: they needed to water, then let it freeze, then water again to be able to penetrate further, and so gradually during the day (they started doing this operation the day before) they reached the opposite bank, after which an improvised road across the river was abundantly watered two more times" ^{[17, l. 304]}.

Further entries in the diary of E. F. Skvortsov serve as an additional illustration of the transport value of cryogenic resources. The researcher recalled the journey to the Russian Mouth made in the spring and the initial stage of the return trip from this village to Yakutsk most often with an unkind word, including the assumption that the distances between stations on one of the routes "baba measured with a stick!" ^{[17, L. 25]}. He characterized the section of the route that had already come in winter with almost exclusively positive epithets, mentioning, among other things, the "beautiful snowy road" and numerous ice-bound reservoirs of Yakutia, which became possible to overcome unhindered ^{[17, L. 317-347]}.

Presented in the manuscript by E. F. Skvortsova and other information relevant to the issue under consideration. In particular, he paid great attention to the food that the researcher was treated to at the stations. So, at one of the stations, the researcher and his companions were treated to "cognac and mountain ash", the snack for which "consisted of frozen solid cow's milk and stroganina." Especially E. F. Skvortsov noted the last dish: "this is a very tasty thing, it is simply frozen raw fish, in which the local severe frosts have made such a change that it has completely lost the unpleasant smell of raw fish, and turned it into a delicate delicacy" ^{[17, l. 60]}.

Earlier, when characterizing the practices of using cryogenic resources by the participants of the Lena Polar expedition, it was noted that there was an alternative to harvesting ice as a source of drinking water. This alternative was also used in 1920 by the participants of the Yakutsk–Vilyu–Suntar survey party under the supervision of engineer D. A. Matveev. The purpose of the work was reconnaissance studies of a dirt road that would connect the cattle-breeding Vilyui group of Yakutia districts with the Lena River, which would facilitate the supply of meat products to the Russian Far East, which then lost access to Mongolian meat ^{[16, L. 2]}.

The route carried out by the researchers, recorded by one of its participants – the future professor and Doctor of Sciences S. G. Parkhomenko – passed slightly south of the Arctic Circle and, strictly speaking, geographically does not relate to the topic of this study. At the same time, this expedition is an excellent reflection of the experience of researchers adopting traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples. So, to solve the "drinking problem", the survey participants purchased from the Yakuts "a projectile used to harvest water supplies so as not to extract it from under the ice in winter. It is a frame consisting of a fork of a birch tree, about a meter long, in the middle of which is inserted a stick about 30 cm long attached with willow rods. To prepare a supply of water, the lower part of the tamak is watered and rolled over the snow, a snowball of several pounds in weight is formed. To use the snow water, tamak is brought into the yurt and hung near the fireplace, and a boiler is placed under the lump, into which snow water flows" ^{[16, l. 42 vol.]}.

The above description, despite some excusable inaccuracies, is one of the few currently identified evidence characterizing this original method of using cryogenic resources to obtain drinking water. The practice described by S. G. Parkhomenko was called tamma/tammakh (drop – yak.) ^{[2, p. 194]}, and in another version – chopcha (icicle - yak.) ^{[3, p. 184]}. At the same time, the source prepared in this way was enough, which was placed on a hook above a traditional Yakut fireplace-type stove (kamelek) for about two days ^{[15, l. 5]}.

Conclusion. Thus, the conducted research indicates a fairly active exploitation of cryogenic resources by participants of expeditions to the Arctic regions of Yakutia during the period under review. The properties of natural cold, snow, ice and "permafrost" were used to provide researchers with food (obtaining drinking water, cryogenic effects during cooking, food storage), their routes (snow and ice roads, ice bridges, icing of sled runners), as well as in the process of home improvement (ice windows). The revealed materials also give an idea of the effectiveness of scientists' adoption of the experience of the indigenous peoples of the Russian Arctic, in general, the fruitfulness of the dialogue between representatives of the research community and the local population.