A comparative analysis of the ballads of V.A. Zhukovsky, J.G. Byron and V.M. Hugo

Oksenchuk Vera Nikolaevna ORCID: 0009-0006-5796-9420 Postgraduate student; Faculty of Philology and Mass Media; K. E. Tsiolkovsky KSU 143301, Russia, Moscow region, Naro-Fominsk, Shibankova str., 18, sq. 7 vera-yakushkina@mail.ru

At about the same historical time, at the beginning of the XIX century, three outstanding writers of different cultures – Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky in Russia, George Gordon Byron in England and Victor Marie Hugo in France – created their famous ballads. Byron's ballad "The Bride of Abydos" was published in 1813, Zhukovsky completed work on the ballad "Lyudmila" in 1820, while Hugo published "The Bride of the Timpani" five years later, in 1825. All the works, despite the similarity of the genre, reflect the unique features of their socio-cultural contexts, which inevitably influenced the thematic structure and the use of literary techniques. These differences in the Russian, English and French literary canon make the comparative analysis of ballads relevant and allow for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of influence of cultural factors on literary creativity. Thus, this work is devoted to the comparative analysis of the ballads "The Bride of Abydos", "Lyudmila" and "The Bride of the Timpani Player", which, being written in a similar period, represent a variety of views and artistic techniques of two different cultural traditions. We strive to identify and analyze the key differences and similarities in the images, motifs, structure and linguistic means used by the authors, which will allow us to more fully highlight their contribution to the development of the ballad genre.

In the context of romanticism, Victor Hugo's ballads are shrouded in a hazy world of grotesque and tragedy, and are one of the most distinct expressions of this literary trend. Manifested in poetic forms, they are epic stories about the events taking place around, imbued with deep feelings and emotions. They differ from the ballad written by Zhukovsky in their peculiar stylization and their inherent expressiveness.

First of all, it seems necessary to focus on the presence or absence of epigraphs. So, if we turn to Victor Hugo's collection "Odes and Ballads", it turns out that "History" and "Two Islands" are accompanied by epigraphs. In the first case, a quote in Latin is used: "Ferrea vox Vergilius" (translated as "Iron Voice. Virgil"), in the second case, it is not possible to establish the authorship: "Tell me where he came from, and I will tell you where he is going." A similar situation is observed in the ballad "The Bride of the Timpani", which is preceded by the following epigraph: "Death is beautiful if you die loving," the author of which should be considered the French poet Deport.

In this regard, it seems necessary to analyze for what purpose epigraphs are used in literary texts. In the middle of the eighteenth century, Johnson's Dictionary defined "epigraph" simply as an "inscription", and it was only in the nineteenth century that this word began to regularly designate a passage or quotation printed at the beginning of a literary text as a starting point, a guide to interpretation, an example, or a counterexample designed to orient the reader in the text. We believe that the modern epigraph somehow comments on the work with which it begins. This opens up questions about what meaning the reader should extract from the epigraph and apply to the text. The very existence of the epigraph raises questions about tradition, the author's authority and his intentions. It can even be said that it helps to create a structurally literary situation. The meaning of what the epigraph says about the text varies from relatively clear to very ambiguous or almost opaque.

In this regard, the following fact is of particular interest: V.A. Zhukovsky does not use epigraphs in any of his ballads: they are absent in "Lyudmila", "Alina and Alsima", "Achilles", "The Twelve Sleeping Maidens". We believe that this fact allows us to draw some conclusions about the ballads of the two authors.

Thus, B.M. Gasparov in his works, analyzing the functions of epigraphs, introduces the concept of "communicative space", through which he designates "an environment represented by thought", within which the author's statement exists ^{[3, pp. 95-97]}. In other words, according to the researcher, the epigraph serves to create or interpret a certain message that the author intentionally brings to his reader.

In addition, B.M. Gasparov argues that the two main functions of an epigraph are the following: informative and the one that determines the form of the work. The first one may include any information about the identity of the author, as well as information about the content of the text following it. The second, accordingly, forms the reader's expectations, causing certain types of emotions in him.

Therefore, it can be argued that V.M. Hugo does not try to communicate anything about his personality to the reader with epigraphs in his ballads, since he sets the tone for the future work. Thus, quoting at the beginning of Deport's "Bride of the Timpani", the author enters into a dialogue with his reader, as if warning him about the main theme of the work. V.A. Zhukovsky, on the contrary, refuses to enter into any dialogue with his reader. However, V.A. Zhukovsky's position cannot be considered as something necessarily negative. Thus, the absence of reminders of death in "Lyudmila" creates a certain intrigue, and until the twenty-fourth verse, the fate of Lyudmila's fiance is unknown: "Everything is lost: there is no friend" ^{[6, p. 240]}. It is only at this point that the reader begins to understand the main theme of the work.

The ballads of Hugo and Zhukovsky can be compared based on their similarity in subject matter and structure. Both authors choose the ballad genre to express their literary ideals and beliefs. They turn to historical or legendary stories to convey their thoughts and feelings through an emotional impact on the reader.

However, they differ in their approach to presenting the ballad. If Zhukovsky tries to preserve the traditional forms of ballad style in his ballads, then Hugo breaks these limits, trying to overcome old conventions and create a new literary direction. His ballads are characterized by expressiveness, dynamism and hyperbolicity. This is manifested in his images, which strongly depend on the strength of the idea, sensual dispersion and verbosity.

Zhukovsky's works, on the contrary, are stylized under archaic forms in which beauty and bitterness, magic and death merged. His ballads are filled with passion and mystery. The main characters of his ballads are thrice-cursed hubris, people ruined by malice. Zhukovsky in his ballads seeks to penetrate into the depths of the human soul, to show its weaknesses and strength, its inner opposites and conflicts.

Hugo's ballads, on the contrary, strive to overcome all these genre limitations and embrace all art and life. In them, Hugo creates realistic images, describes real characters who find themselves in strange, unusual situations. He is proud that in his ballads he creates new forms and original journeys between the worlds of the real and the imaginary, between the past and the present, between life and death.

Comparing the ballads of Hugo and Zhukovsky, it can be noted that Hugo writes his ballads more to shock and amaze than for the aesthetic pleasure of readers. He is not afraid to use violent, shocking plots to highlight the injustice of the world, human cruelty and tragic moments.

At the same time, Zhukovsky is more melancholic and romantic. Through his ballads, he seeks to express his deep emotions and experiences caused by a feeling of loneliness and powerlessness in front of fate. His ballads penetrate into the darkest corners of the soul, where life and death merge.

However, at the same time, it must be said that both authors refer to similar subjects. In the ballad "The Bride of the Timpani Player", V.M. Hugo tells about a girl who is waiting for her fiance to return from the war ^[6]. Her feelings are filled with anxiety, she prays to St. Brigitte that she will save her loved one. The girl hears that the army is approaching, she hears the sounds of a timpani and turns to her relatives, demanding them to tell if they see her beloved among the approaching soldiers. At the end of the ballad, the girl sees a regiment of timpani players passing by her and realizes that her fiance died in the war. Unable to cope with her grief, the girl dies: "She moaned and fell dead to the ground — the timpani passed by."

In "Lyudmila" by V.A. Zhukovsky, there is a similar plot. The reader sees Lyudmila as a young girl faced with the sudden death of her fiance. Despite the fact that the young people have already planned their wedding, the war is invading their lives. As a result, the girl is faced with a shocking reality and reflections on how to live her life further. This is one of the differences characteristic of the ballads "Bride of the Timpani" and "Lyudmila". In the first, the death of the main character follows immediately after the realization of the death of her husband, while in V.A. Zhukovsky, the death of the groom is only the beginning of a further fantastic story. The author introduces fabulous images into the plot, among which it is necessary to note the ghostly horseman speaking in the voice of Lyudmila's fiance: "The ring rattled softly…They said in a low whisper... (All her veins trembled) That was a familiar voice." Despite the fact that the image of the groom risen from the dead itself causes a feeling of fear in the reader, we believe that V.A. Zhukovsky focused not so much on the groom as on the way he moved – on horseback.

And although the horse is absent in the "Bride of the Timpani", an analysis of the works of various authors suggests that the image of the "devil's horse" is often present in literature. According to A.S. Bakalov and Z.N. Bakalova, G.A. Burger, a German poet, in his ballad "Lenora" refers specifically to this image. So, in "Lenore", the plot of which is also very similar to "The Bride of the Timpani" and "Lyudmila", it is the dead horse that brings the main character a dead lover and subsequently becomes a concomitant condition for her death ^[2].

It is noteworthy that, creating the artistic space of the work, V.A. Zhukovsky refers to the description of nature. So, the appearance of the ghost rider is accompanied by the following description of nature: "the sun is behind the mountains", "the valley is gloomy", "the forest is gloomy", "long shadows stretch from the mountains", "the moon is covered with clouds" and so on. However, if we focus on the time markers of the work, they are virtually absent: it is not possible to determine the events of which era the author is trying to describe. The only words that allow you to conditionally "bind" the work to a certain historical epoch: "the army of the Slavs", "shell".

Unlike "The Bride of the Timpani Player", this ballad has no specifically medieval elements, except for its form and the atmosphere of superstitious horror enveloping the described events. However, she also participates in a return to the past, to naive, folk forms and national myths of Russia, even if the timelessness of the work does not allow using any local flavor.

It seems necessary to note the dialogic nature of V.A. Zhukovsky's ballad, expressed in Lyudmila's dialogue with both her mother and the ghost rider. The image of a mother is an expression of goodness, a bright, divine principle, trying to convince her daughter that a further happy life is possible even in the absence of a loved one.

The ghost rider, on the contrary, is an image of darkness, a diabolical principle, convincing Lyudmila that life without a loved one is impossible. We believe that with the help of the ballad, V.A. Zhukovsky sought to demonstrate his religious views. So, the author sympathizes with the mother of the main character, who tries to convince her daughter of the need to accept reality as it is: fickle and subject to change. However, Lyudmila, opposing herself to the Divine plan, demands death. Her weakness, unwillingness to look at the state of affairs soberly become the cause of her future death. The poetic dimension of "Lyudmila" is a four–stop chorus.

V.M. Hugo pays much more attention to the description of the army and knights. The local flavor is present to a much greater extent than that of V.A. Zhukovsky. Archaisms abound: "l'arrière-ban", "les barons" in the medieval sense of "chevaliers", "les preux", "les timbaliers", "pourpoint" and so on. As for the poetic size, in the original V.M. Hugo uses an octosyllable, a short verse of a medieval ballad, giving the impression of simplicity. The five-line stanzas mix cross and flat rhymes. In other words, the historical and geographical situation is defined much more precisely than in Lyudmila.

V.M. Hugo also emphasizes some features of medieval mores, in particular, the importance of religious rituals: three stanzas are dedicated to the prayers of the girl for the return of the groom. This is an important element for the Catholic and V.M. Hugo of that time: The Middle Ages is considered as a time of faith and attachment to Catholicism.

And although fabulousness and fantasy are not present in the ballad of V.M. Hugo in the same form as in V.A. Zhukovsky, evil, nevertheless, appears through the traditional figure of the "gypsy witch" predicting the death of a timpani player, as well as a young girl.

This is followed by a description of the army parade. The idea of V.M. Hugo is that he tries to postpone as much as possible the ending of the work, which tells about the cruel death of a girl, by describing in detail the various army corps over four stanzas: pikemen, barons, priests, heralds, Templars, archers, then timpani. As a result, the young girl's hopes remain until the very last moment:

Thus, the supernatural in V.M. Hugo is much more restrained than in V.A. Zhukovsky. The girl's death can be explained in a natural way, even if the gypsy's prediction suggests a diabolical intervention. V.M. Hugo pays much more attention to the description of the medieval atmosphere, reminiscent of paintings by troubadours. The originality of the ballad also lies in the fact that everything happens from the point of view of the girl, without the intervention of an outside narrator, except for the end. There are no dialogues in the ballad, which is quite rare. The girl speaks throughout the poem, referring either to her past actions or to the spectacle that appears before her eyes. The change of point of view at the end of the work creates a gap that makes its sudden disappearance more tangible.

One of the key similarities between Byron's "Bride of Abydos" and Hugo's "Bride of the Timpani" is their main theme - love. Both ballads talk about the impossibility or tragic fulfillment of love. In "The Bride of Abydos" we are talking about three brothers who try to win the heart of the bride of Abydos, but she refuses all three, their showdown leads to her death. "The Bride of the Timpani Maker" tells the story of a young girl Anna, who is in love with a timpani, but her father marries her to a rich groom. Despite their unfortunate fate, both characters remain faithful to their love, their touching stories evoke sympathy and an emotional response.

Another similarity between the ballads is the poets' use of stylistic techniques and images. Both texts contain rich language, metaphors and symbols that help convey the emotions and ideas imprinted in them. In "The Bride of Abydos" there are often symbols of water, light and shadow, which are key elements of the plot. There is also a song motif, which plays an important role in the development of the plot. In "The Bride of the Timpani Player", the timpani becomes a symbol of love - a musical instrument that connects the characters and allows them to maintain their bond even after their separation.

However, despite these common features, the "Abydos Bride" and the "Timpani Bride" also have their own characteristics and differences. In the first ballad there is an element of fiction - the characters magically transform into different animals. In "The Bride of the Timpani Player", the inner world of the heroine is more emphasized - we see her feelings, experiences and the internal conflict between duty and love.

Initially, Hugo's ballads had some similarities with Byron's ballads, especially in their structure and style. Both poets used the ballad form to depict events striking in their tragic intensity and deep human psychology. Both poets also sought to convey their emotions and feelings through vivid images and socially significant themes.

However, despite these similarities, Hugo's ballads had significant differences from Byron's ballads. Firstly, Hugo took a new approach to the question of the hero. If Byron's heroes were often loners, constantly in conflict with society, then Hugo's heroes were typical representatives of society who faced external circumstances, forcing them to commit vivid and dramatic deeds.

In addition, Hugo's ballads were distinguished by experiments with form. The poet used many techniques to express his ideas and emotions. He used unusual rhymes, changed the standard structure of the ballad, and introduced a variety of literary sources to create more complex and profound images.

Another important difference between Hugo's ballads and Byron's ballads is the use of philosophical themes. Hugo was familiar with many philosophical concepts of his time and in his ballads often reflected the issues of existence, freedom and justice. The poet identified with his heroes and used their stories to express his own views on the world.

The ballads of Byron and Hugo also differ in their relation to romantic ideals. Byron placed the loneliness and torment of the hero at the center of his ballads, and also reflected in them his negative attitude towards society and power. Hugo, on the contrary, preached the ideals of struggle and freedom, heroic overcoming of difficulties and catastrophes, which resonated in the hearts of many of his contemporaries.

A comparative examination of the poems "The Bride of Abydos" by George Gordon Byron and "Lyudmila" by Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky allows us to look at both works through the prism of romantic literature, to identify their distinctive features and the general context of the era in which they were created. The main difference between the two poems lies in the cultural contexts in which the plots develop. Byron's Orient is filled with exoticism and romanticism, which corresponds to the Romantics' interest in distant and unexplored lands, riddles and adventures. The East in "The Bride of Abydos" acts not only as a background, but also as an active participant in the story, creating an additional artistic effect. Zhukovsky's Lyudmila, on the other hand, draws its inspiration from Russian folklore and national culture. Zhukovsky is trying to convey the spirit of the Russian land, its fabulous component and moral features. The poem is full of allegories and symbols that emphasize the supernatural impact of fate on human lives.

The structural features of both poems are also different. Byron creates a poem with a clear structure and rhyme, paying special attention to the musicality of the verse, which emphasizes the romantic mood of the work. Zhukovsky, following the traditions of ballad poetry, uses a more conversational style of writing, which makes his poem a little easier to perceive and closer to the oral form of folk art. Despite these differences, both poems have a lot in common. In the center of both Byron's "Abydos Bride" and Zhukovsky's "Lyudmila" is tragic love. The characters of both poems are riddled with suffering and dissatisfaction, which serves as a powerful factor in the drama and sensitivity of the works. These feelings reflect the philosophy of romanticism, which pays great attention to individuality and emotional experiences.

Based on the above, we conclude that the ballads of V.M. Hugo, J. Byron and V.A. Zhukovsky demonstrate the presence of both similarities and differences:

- unlike the ballads of V.A. Zhukovsky, almost all the ballads of V.M. Hugo contain epigraphs that allow not only to create a certain emotional background of the work, as, for example, in "The Bride of the Timpani" (Death is beautiful if you die loving), but also to enter into a dialogue with the reader, having previously told him part of the plot;

- in "Lyudmila" there is a fantastic image of the "devil's horse" (ghost rider), which eventually becomes the cause of Lyudmila's death. And although there is an image of a "gypsy witch" in the "Bride of the timpani", she does not cause the death of the main character;

- in V.M. Hugo, the main character dies immediately after realizing that her lover did not return from the war – this is how the finale of the work looks like. In V.A. Zhukovsky, the death of a lover is only the beginning of further fantastic events, the result of which is also the death of the main character;

- V.A. Zhukovsky creates an artistic space by describing nature, while V.M. Hugo uses the description of the ammunition of warriors for the same purpose;

- the ballads of Hugo and Byron differ both in form and content. While Byron's ballads are a reflection of his individual struggle with society and power, Hugo's ballads are most associated with the social and philosophical problems of his time. Both poets contributed to the development of romanticism and left an indelible mark on world literature, but each in his own style and his own ideals;

- the ballads of Byron and Hugo also differ in their attitude to romantic ideals. Byron placed the loneliness and torment of the hero at the center of his ballads, and also reflected in them his negative attitude towards society and power. Hugo, on the contrary, preached the ideals of struggle and freedom, heroic overcoming of difficulties and catastrophes, which resonated in the hearts of many of his contemporaries;

- in "Lyudmila" there are practically no time markers, while in "The Bride of the Timpani" there are a large number of historical and geographical markers.