Directions and features of the development of artistic communication between China and Soviet Russia in the 1950s and 1960s.

Ma Haijun Postgraduate student; Institute of Creative Industries; Vladivostok State University 41 Gogol str., Vladivostok, 690014, Russia m1045949261@gmail.com

Tkachenko Elena Vladimirovna PhD in Cultural Studies Associate Professor; Department of Design and Technology; Vladivostok State University 41 Gogol str., Vladivostok, 690014, Russia l.tkachenko.66@bk.ru

Introduction

The 1950s and 1960s were a period of active cooperation between Soviet Russia and China, which unfolded in various directions, including in the field of fine arts. Moreover, to a greater extent, such communication influenced the process of formation of the art world of the Middle Kingdom, especially with regard to the reflection and interpretation of artistic traditions of creating oil paintings in a realistic way. Chen Wenhua, researching the history of the exhibition of Russian painting in China as part of his dissertation, noted that "the revolutionary art of the new state formation, such as the Soviet Union, turned out to be in demand by the Chinese people fighting for independence. After the creation of the People's Republic of China, the creative and critical method “socialist realism” borrowed from Soviet Russia was adopted as the basis of artistic policy in the country. This is how Soviet art radically influenced the development of Chinese art" ^{[1, p. 5]}. This position is shared by many Russian-speaking researchers, in particular P. Wang ^[2], S. Chen ^[3], L. V. Nikiforova ^[4], H. Zhang ^[5], C. Wang ^[6], O. N. Grigorenko and A.M. Kopsergenova ^[7], H. Lu ^[8], S. M. Gracheva ^[9], S. Lo ^[10], M. Qiaoming ^[11]. These authors consider interaction based on cultural exchanges, including in the 1950s and 1960s, to be one of the prerequisites for the development of Chinese art, especially oil painting.

In general, the material available in the scientific literature indicates a growing interest in studying the contacts of the artistic worlds of Russia and China, both in the past and in the present. However, when studying this phenomenon, as a rule, either the issue of development, organization of exhibition activities, or educational practices, their influence on the work of certain authors is touched upon. Thus, Guo Xiaobin, considering the influence of Soviet painting of the 1950s and 1960s on the development of Chinese fine art, touched upon the issues of teaching Chinese artists according to the Russian-Soviet method of teaching drawing, but did not include the role of exhibition projects in his analysis ^[12]. At the same time, these areas of communication were not analyzed as aspects of a single phenomenon associated with the formation of the Chinese school of oil painting, which is still taking place.

Exhibitions of fine art of Soviet Russia in China as a form of cultural exchange between the two countries in the 1950s and 1960s.

Fine art exhibitions can be considered as one of the most important forms of artistic exchange between China and the Soviet Union during the period under review. They mainly exhibited oil paintings, engravings, and photographs. They were arranged by different departments. The largest ones, such as the Exhibition of Fine Arts of the Soviet Union, were organized by the Ministry of Culture or the Chinese Association of Artists, as well as the People's Cultural Association. In those years, projects related to non–professional creativity were carried out - the "Chinese-Soviet Exhibition of children's and youth paintings" (1955). There were highly specialized exhibitions. So, in 1958-1959, Beijing and Moscow polygraphists jointly exhibited their works.

Among the art exhibitions organized by the Soviet Union in China in the 1951-1958's, the very first project of this kind should be noted - this is the "Exhibition of Soviet Propaganda Paintings and Cartoons" (1951) in Beijing and Shanghai, where more than three hundred works were presented. It was opened with great fanfare within the walls of the Central Academy of Fine Arts. Li Jishen, Huang Yanpei and the Soviet Ambassador to China N. V. Roshin attended the opening ceremony. The best representatives of China's artistic circles, Xu Beihong and Qian Junrui, made a welcoming speech.

Three years later, an exhibition dedicated to the achievements of the economic and cultural construction of the USSR was opened in the newly built Exhibition Hall of the USSR in the Chinese capital in the presence of Zhou Enlai. In total, 280 works were exhibited at the Museum of Fine Arts, including oil paintings, watercolors, sculptures, cartoons, illustrations, engravings, etc. Oil painting enjoyed special attention of the public. Thus, Chinese viewers saw many works on the topic related to the Second World War, in particular the large-scale canvas "Defenders of the Brest Fortress" by P. A. Krivonogov, "Our Sisters" by B. M. Nemensky, etc. There were also canvases with images of leaders and statesmen. It should be noted "Power to the Soviets – Peace to the Peoples" by D. A. Nalbandian, "Morning of Our Motherland" by F. S. Shurpin, which aroused the interest of the Chinese by the power of emotional expressiveness. Attention was also attracted by genre works by Soviet authors, among them – "The latest issue of the workshop newspaper" A. P. Levitin and Yu. N. Tulina, "Goalkeeper" S. A. Grigoriev and others. The exhibition also featured landscapes depicting the expanses of the "northern neighbor" and continuing a long-standing painting tradition: "On the Volga" by A.M. Gritsai, "View of the White Forest" by V. N. Baksheev, "Evening on the outskirts of Moscow" by L. I. Brodsky , etc. Examples of the portrait genre were particularly noted – "Portrait of the writer Maxim Gorky" by V. P. Efanov, "Portrait of B. I. Yakovleva" A.M. Gerasimova et al. One of the most powerful works is considered to be "At the old Ural Factory" in 1937 by B. V. Johanson ^[13]. This exhibition, in fact, demonstrated the best works in terms of performance, which, among other things, corresponded as much as possible to the ideology prevailing in the country in the field of creativity. They, both in terms of ideological content and execution, became a great shock for representatives of the Chinese art world. Moreover, for many of them it was the first experience of getting acquainted with the high skill in the field of oil painting.

According to the results of the exhibition, it was reported in the Chinese media that in the three months since its opening (02.10.1954 - 12.26.1954) in Beijing, the number of visitors amounted to almost three hundred thousand people, and the total number after the completion of its exposition in other cities of the country was almost three million. One of the visitors, sharing his immediate impressions, noted the following: "At that time, one or two large cars, accommodating dozens of people, plied daily between the Exhibition Hall of the USSR and the Association of Fine Arts. Many art associations and schools organized visits and talks. For a long time after the opening, the works presented at the exhibition became objects of close study for the entire world of fine art of the country" ^[14]. Many local cultural institutions organized special visits. For example, during the Guangzhou exhibition, the Working Committee for the Study of Soviet Technology and Culture sent more than three dozen local artists to copy paintings, sculptures, prints and other works of art in the halls where the exhibition was held.

The interest of the Chinese public, especially representatives of the art world, in Russian Russian-Soviet art school's achievements were so great that in November 1957 a new project was opened in Beijing – "Exhibition of Russian Fine Art of the XVIII–XIX centuries.", the composition of which was formed from the collections of the largest art museums of Soviet Russia. The basis was again realistic oil painting. Chinese viewers had the opportunity to get acquainted with the work of representatives of different stages of the development of Russian art, from rock art portraiture to the masterpieces of artists-wanderers. Thus, portrait images executed by F. P. were presented at the exhibition. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, etc. However, representatives of critical realism attracted special attention, in particular V. G. Perov with his famous work "Hunters at a halt", V. E. Makovsky, I. N. Kramskoy, V. I. Surikov, I. E. Repin, V. A. Serov, etc. Landscapes were shown separately, in particular by I. K. Aivazovsky, I. I. Shishkin, A. I. Kuindzhi, etc. It is important to note that many Chinese artists copied the works of colleagues from Russia directly at the exhibition. Researcher Zhu Sha notes that "in the process of copying, they [Chinese artists] comprehended the ideological content of the works, studied color variations, brushstroke changes and other surprising techniques that can only be understood by seeing the original oil paintings" ^[13].

In addition, the 1957 Beijing Exhibition was distinguished by a very high professional level. It featured works by recognized Soviet artists. We are also talking about sculptures by V. I. Mukhina, graphic works by V. A. Favorsky, paintings and graphics by representatives of the creative collective "Kukryniksy", consisting of M. V. Kupriyanov, P. N. Krylov and N. A. Sokolov. Monumental plastic art by N. V. Tomsky, canvases by G. I. Pimenov, illustrations by E. M. were also exhibited there. Racheva. It is important to clarify that projects of this kind after the capital were necessarily sent from other major cities so that as many Chinese as possible could get acquainted with the work of Soviet authors ^[15].

In 1958, the "Exhibition of works by Soviet Artists of 1955-1957" presented more than 540 works of oil painting, sculpture, prints, posters, cartoons and illustrations. Among them, the Chinese public was interested in the painting "Awakening" by A. A. Mylnikov, "Off Duty" by Tahir Teimurovich Salakhov, genre paintings by A. A. Plastova, "On the Eve" by K. M. Kosmachev, etc. The delegation from the USSR included A.D. Shmarinov and a number of other authors who conducted excursions for visitors, including their Chinese colleagues. The latter noted changes in the artistic language and themes of the works associated with the coming "thaw". This largely inspired local artists to very careful plastic experiments in their work, determining the development of the romantic direction of the Chinese version of socialist realism. It is important to note that its further formation was interrupted by the Cultural Revolution, which also leveled the "entry points" of Soviet art that had developed by that time into the artistic space of China.

Exhibitions of Fine Art of the People's Republic of China in Soviet Russia as a form of cultural exchange between China and Soviet Russia in the 1950s and 1960s.

The first official exhibition sent by New China to the USSR was the "Exhibition of Chinese Art" in 1950, which featured works selected from the First National Art Exhibition in 1949, as well as paintings and handicrafts by masters of the past. On it, "New Year's pictures, which had pronounced national features, were naive, warmly welcomed and highly appreciated" ^[16]. The following year, 1952, in Moscow, in honor of the third anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China, New Year's pictures, beloved by the public, were again exhibited at the Central House of Artists in Moscow. Thus, instead of demonstrating the actual achievements of the artistic world of Chinese artists in Russia, they became interested mainly in works that reflected national characteristics. In addition, the field of attention included the decorative and applied arts of the Middle Kingdom. So, in 1954, the "Exhibition of Chinese Art and Crafts" was held in Moscow, and in 1957, the "Exhibition of Chinese Decorative and Applied Arts of the Qing Dynasty" was also opened in the Museum of the East.

At the same time, a kind of breakthrough was the opening in 1957 in Moscow of the "Exhibition of Modern Chinese Painting", which featured more than 100 works by Chinese artists representing various styles. The project was organized by the USSR Ministry of Culture and took place first at the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts in the Soviet capital, and then in Leningrad. This project can be regarded as a kind of form of recognition by the Soviet Union of the existence and development of Chinese national art, its national and cultural identity and at the same time proximity in understanding artistic tasks. Another important stage in this process was the "Exhibition of works of Fine Art of Socialist countries", opened in December 1958 in Moscow. In addition to other states, China presented almost three hundred works, including 67 works made in the technique of traditional painting, 25 oil paintings, 57 sculptures, 49 engravings, 22 cartoons, 20 New Year's paintings, 8 posters, 15 watercolors and 14 comics. Such a composition reflected the idea that had developed at that time about the ways of development of Chinese art, where oil painting was not yet the most important place. It is important to note that she was mainly represented by large canvases that realistically represent revolutionary and historical subjects. However, for Soviet viewers and the professional community, the weakness of Chinese masters was obvious, who needed time and support in the process of mastering the skill of painting complex multi-figure compositions in oil.

Traditionally, it is considered that artistic contacts between Soviet Russia and China during the period under study were rather one-sided. It was the Chinese art world that most needed examples of realistic art created in a revolutionary spirit. Thus, one of the cultural figures Guo Moruo noted the following: "Soviet culture goes to China like a river, and Chinese culture to the Soviet Union is like a stream" ^[17]. A review of Chinese art exhibitions in the USSR shows that their number and scale are not comparable to what was happening in the People's Republic at the same time. The Soviet public and artists, in particular, preferred the works of old masters, as well as works of an applied nature that had an ethnocultural flavor. The paintings of modern artists against the background of the works of Soviet masters looked frankly weak. In addition, the exhibitions of the Soviet Union in China were not only large-scale, but also reflected a certain completeness and comprehensiveness of a long-developing artistic tradition, compared with the exhibitions of China in the USSR, which were much smaller in scale and influence.

The training of Chinese artists in Soviet Russia in the 1950s and 1960s as a basis for the development of national realistic art and artistic education in China

At the beginning of the existence of the People's Republic of China (1949), a "unilateral" foreign policy towards Soviet Russia was adopted. As the analysis of the exhibition projects showed, the presentation of the best examples of the Russian-Soviet art school was an important stage in the process of introducing the country's art world to its achievements, especially in the field of oil painting and graphics. However, in addition, the practice of directly transferring creative experience from Soviet art teachers to Chinese colleagues was actively developing. This process was launched in the early 1950s, when the country's artistic world embarked on the path of integration and interpretation of Russian-Soviet achievements in the field of socialist realism. The emphasis was also placed on thematic painting, which positioned the picture of the revolutionary and liberation struggle of the Chinese people in a new way, as well as successes in building the state and society. The Chinese leadership, seeking to break with the traditions of the past, encouraged the training of artists in the USSR, where they got acquainted with new techniques and artistic materials, techniques and principles of performance. The first to be sent to the I. E. Repin Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (hereinafter – IHSA, Academy) (now the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts named after I. E. Repin) were Qian Shaowu, Li Tianxiang, Chen Zongsan and Cheng Yongjiang. From 1953 to 1960, Quan Shanshi, Luo Gongliu, Zhang Huaqing and Su Gao Li also went there. These authors had a significant impact on artistic life in their homeland, and also influenced the development of art pedagogy.

From 1953 to 1959, under the guidance of M. K. Anikushin and M. A. Kerzin, Qian Shaou was trained at the IZHSA (1928-2021). The influence of Soviet sculptors affected the entire further creative path of the Chinese master. The master used the artistic principles associated with the realistic interpretation of form, which were perceived in the USSR, to embody the impression of the model and her mood in his portraits. At the same time, Li Tianxiang studied at the Leningrad Academy (1928-2020). His mentor in painting was V. M. Oreshnikov, whose techniques of working with color and brushstroke the Chinese artist adapted to his own artistic concept. Chen Zongsan (1929), a specialist in the field of printmaking, returned with his compatriots after a six-year study program in China, gave an interview for a publication timed to coincide with the opening of the Chinese-Russian exhibition "National Year of Oil Painters": "Russian oil painting adheres to the tradition of realism and is full of qualities that are suitable for the development of Chinese literature and fine arts" ^[18].

From 1954 to 1960. in the workshop of M. V. Oreshnikov studied with the Chinese painter Quan Shanshi (1930). The experience gained at the academy, contact with Russian-Soviet art made the master a convinced follower of realism. Just like his predecessors, in his subsequent creative and pedagogical practice, the artist adhered to the objective transmission of images of people and the natural environment. His colleagues Luo Gongliu (1916-2004), who studied in Leningrad from 1955 to 1958, and Zhang Huaqing (1932), who was trained from 1955 to 1962, also adhered to the principles of Soviet painting in relation to color, shape modeling and passed them on to their students. One of the last authors who studied in the USSR on the eve of the cooling of relations between the two countries was Su Gao Li (1937-2009). He devoted his life to systematic research in the field of artistic creativity and teaching realistic art within the walls of the Central Academy of Arts, in particular color theory.

Educational practices as a form of cultural exchange between Soviet masters and Chinese colleagues in the 1950s and 1960s: P. P. Chistyakov's drawing system and K. M. Maksimov's pedagogical practice

In addition to sending groups of students to study in the USSR in the 1950s and 1960s, another option was practiced to introduce the country's art world to its achievements of the Russian-Soviet art school. And it turned out to be no less effective, since it assumed the work of Soviet specialists in China itself. Thus, the system of teaching drawing by P. P. Chistyakov began to integrate into the system of professional art education that was becoming at that time. Future artists began to learn the basics of academic drawing from it. Moreover, in 1952 Yang Chengying translated and published the "Program of teaching drawing in higher schools of fine arts in the USSR". At the National Symposium on the Teaching of Drawing, held in Beijing in 1955, experts from more than 20 specialized colleges and universities unanimously supported the promotion of this system of teaching drawing ^[19]. It was considered as an important stage in the comprehension of the pictorial foundations of oil painting ^[20]. This step determined the development of Chinese art for many years, influencing the professional development of entire generations of painters.

A special page in the development of relations between the artistic worlds of Soviet Russia and China in those years was the arrival of a group of artists, in particular K. M. Maksimov from the Moscow State Academic Art Institute named after V. I. Surikov, to teach students. It was a decisive step and an initiative of the Chinese Ministry of Culture, which is interested in accelerating and strengthening the training of artistic personnel. So, during the period of K. M. Maksimov's leadership of the oil painting workshop at the Central Academy of Fine Arts, his students were Wei Chuanyi, Yu Changkou, Wang Chengyi, Qin Zheng, Wu Dezu, He Congde, Wang Shizhu, Yuan Hao, Zhang Beixin, Wang Liuqiu, Gao Hong, Lu Guoying, Feng Fazhi, Ren Mengzhang, Hou Yiming, Jin Shanyi, Zhang Jianjun, Shang Husheng, Zhang Wenxin, Wang Dewei, Yu Yunzhi, etc. After graduation, students began teaching oil painting, spreading the Soviet teaching methodology throughout the country ^[21]. Among them, Hou Yimin, Jin Shanyi and Zhang Jianjun remained at the Central Academy of Fine Arts, and Jin Shanyi served as its president and chairman of the Chinese Association of Artists for many years. The ideas he instilled about the construction of an artistic form and the attitude to color affected the further development of Chinese realistic painting. For example, due to the failure for political reasons of the arrival of K. M. Maksimov's successor, a teacher of the Leningrad Academy, Yu. M. Neprintsev, the workshop was headed by Luo Gunliu, who studied oil painting in the USSR from 1955 to 1958. The teacher-artist increased the duration of the course to three years, and the workshop, where Ge Weimo, Liang Yulong, Li Huaji, Du Ki, Wen Lipeng, Ma Changli, Zhong Han and others were accepted, was called a "Research class of oil painting" ^[22].

Conclusion

Sino-Soviet cultural exchanges in the field of art reached their peak in the 1950s - early 1960s and played a key role in the formation and development of the art education system in the country, as well as the art world in general. 1965, relations between China and the Soviet Union deteriorated, and exchanges in the field of fine arts were interrupted. At the same time, the impact that has been exerted on the art community of the republic in less than a decade of cooperation has been great. It went several ways. The main ones were exhibition projects with the best samples Russian-Soviet art, which was demonstrated mainly in Beijing and Shanghai, as well as the practice of sending Chinese artists to the Leningrad Academy to study in workshops or introducing the methods of P. P. Chistyakov into the practice of universities in the country. The work of K. M. Maksimov, who has trained a whole galaxy of artists and art teachers, has brought special benefit to the Chinese pedagogy of art. Both authors later held teaching positions at the best specialized universities in the country, headed various departments that dealt with issues of culture and art. All these directions of development of art exchanges allowed local authors to study the principles of building an artistic form, means of expression, which were used in Russian-Soviet oil painting. Hence the widespread practice of copying the works of masters from Russia directly in the exhibition space.