Consulates of different countries in Harbin in the first third of the 20th century

Smolianinova Tatiana Anatolyevna ORCID: 0000-0001-9328-5524 Senior Lecturer; Graduate School of Architecture and Urban Planning; Pacific State University 680035, Russia, Khabarovsk Territory, Khabarovsk, st. Pacific, 136, office 506b design.total@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

Introduction. Harbin City was designed and built by Russian engineers during the construction of the Chinese-Eastern Railway (CER). Harbin's favorable geographical location, located at the intersection of waterways and railways, played a key role in its rapid development. The city has become an important administrative, commercial, industrial and political center. In a short time, two main districts were formed in the city: the New City, where the main administrative offices and employee houses are located, and the Marina, a commercial and industrial district. With the development of international relations, consulates and diplomatic missions of different countries appeared in the city. This indicates a high level of international activity in this area. The Russian contribution to the development of the city and its infrastructure had a significant impact on its formation. Thus, the results of the study can be practically significant in the context of preserving the architectural and historical heritage of Russian and foreign architecture in the territory of Northeast China ^[1].

N. P. Kradin ^[2-4] and S. S. Levoshko ^[5] became one of the first researchers of Harbin architecture in Russia. They examined the legacy of Russian and European architects in the cities of Manchuria, including Harbin. The works of N. E. Ablova ^[6], M. A. Vivdych ^[7], A. A. Lisitsyn ^[8] and T. Y. Troitskaya ^[9] are devoted to the history of the construction of the Chinese-Eastern Railway. It is also worth noting the works of M. E. Bazilevich ^{[4, 14]}, in which the activities of some architects who worked in Manchuria, including Harbin, are considered in detail. Photographs from the 1980s and 1990s of the preserved and already lost buildings that formed the appearance of Harbin are presented in the works of Chinese researcher Zhang Huaisheng ^[11]. The books of the author's team of Chinese scientists ^{[12, 13]} contain brief historical descriptions of the objects and their photographs. Political and historical issues were also raised in the works of V. G. Datsyshen, V. V. Sushkov and E. M. Mironova ^{[14, 15, 16]}.

The materials studied helped to systematize information about the buildings where the consular offices were located, as well as about the time of their operation and how and when the consulates appeared in Harbin. This process was influenced not only by political, but also by economic factors. Having studied the materials of the periodical press (the newspapers "Rupor" and "Zarya"), which were published in Harbin during the period under review, it was possible to establish the addresses of previously unidentified positions of consular facilities, as well as how they worked.

Opening of consular offices in Harbin. The appearance of foreign states in Manchuria led to the appearance of consulates and diplomatic missions in Harbin. The development of economic and political relations, especially in the context of the construction of the Russian Railway in China, contributed to their interaction. Thus, the diplomatic presence in Harbin has become an important part of the historical context. Harbin city has become a cultural center due to favorable conditions for the development and conduct of business activities. The influx of a diverse population led to the formation of various national diasporas, which brought part of their culture to the rapidly developing new city, which was reflected in the architectural and historical heritage. As evidenced by the reference books and newspapers published at that time ("All Harbin", "Mouthpiece", "Dawn"), according to which in the early 1920s Harbin was a multinational city with a rich social life. During this period, consular buildings appeared in the city, the preserved buildings of which can still be seen today in Harbin. The study found that there were 19 consulates general, consulates and representative offices of various countries in Russian Harbin, as well as two diplomatic bureaus and a Japanese military mission. The study found 30 consular facilities, including one unrealized consular complex project. Some of these objects have survived to the present day, while others can be studied from photographs and documents. On the Harbin plan of 1916 (Fig. 1a), six consulates were noted in the area of the New City: the Imperial Russian Consulate General, the French, Belgian, USA, the Imperial Japanese Consulate General, the British Consulate, as well as two diplomatic bureaus in the Marina area — the Jilin and Qiqihar, the court and the prison at the Jilin Bureau ^[17]. According to the well–known reference book "The Whole of Harbin" for 1926, 15 consulates were already operating in the city ^{[18, pp.84-85]}. In 1930, Innokenty Charov's handbook "Harbin Album" noted 14 consulates and representative offices of different states ^[19]. And in the Handbook of Northern Manchuria and the CER dated 1927, 17 consulates were listed, including the USSR, USA, Great Britain, France, Japan, Italy, Germany, Denmark, Poland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Latvia, Portugal, Lithuania and Estonia ^{[20, pp.566-568]}. In 1933, 10 consular sites were marked on the map (Fig. 1b) ^[21]. Interestingly, in the directories, in addition to the addresses of consular buildings, the names of consuls general, vice-consuls and diplomatic representatives are indicated. Some of the identified consular sites have survived to the present day, the preserved historical evidence of consular activity gives uniqueness and helps to better understand the architectural heritage of Harbin.

a) b)

a — 1916; b — 1933

Figure 1. Harbin City Plan

Consular offices of different countries. The Russian consulate was especially actively developing. During the period of diplomatic relations with China, Russia has opened five consular offices. All of them were located in the area of the New City, in strategically important places near the administrative buildings of the road administration. Initially, due to the lack of their own buildings, consular offices actively rented premises for consular needs. The Consulate of the Russian Empire was no exception and rented the building of the Garrison Assembly (now the Yamato Hotel), located in the most presentable part of the city on Vokzalny Prospekt ^[22]. V. F. Luba was appointed Consul General ^{[23, p. 266]}. The consulate was temporarily located in this building until in 1909 it moved to a new building located on the corner of Pravlenskaya and Sadovaya streets in the same area. The building was erected in 1904. It was designed for the CER by Russian architects. The consulate was located there until 1920. Later it was transferred to the Russian-Chinese technical School, which two years later was transformed into a Polytechnic Institute ^{[2, pp. 202-203]}. The architecture of the object has features of Art Nouveau, which are more evident in the decor of the building and the characteristic outline of the window openings. The main focus is the entrance group, which is a combination of three openings framed by pilasters with a bend at the ground floor level. In 1953, the building was reconstructed according to the project of architect P. S. Sviridov. Currently, the building houses the museum of Harbin Polytechnic Institute (KHPI).

With the development of consular activity, the Russian Empire attempted to build a consular complex in Harbin. It was supposed to erect three consular buildings. The project was developed by a talented engineer Kazy-Giray in 1913 and 1914. However, unfortunately, due to the difficult political situation at that time, the project could not be implemented ^[24]. The sketch designs demonstrate the rich stucco decoration, which was mainly located in the upper part of the buildings, emphasizing the dynamic domes. Rustication and the use of round windows are also noticeable on the facades.

From 1924 to 1931, the USSR Consulate was located in the Kroll mansion on Girinskaya Street ^{[20, 25]}. Then (1932) the Consulate of the Czech Republic was located here, which was headed by Consul G. Horni. On the territory surrounded by a fence, office buildings made in the Art Nouveau style have been preserved. Now the mansion, although residential, is in a dilapidated state. The mansion has not lost its appeal, although it has been rebuilt and needs renovation. Recognizable decor can be seen on the facades, and authentic doors, stairs and forged fence elements have been preserved in the interior.

In 1925, an additional consulate office was opened at the corner of Boulevard Avenue and Strelkova Street. It is located in the building of the Central Union ^[26]. And already in 1927, the consulate moved to the Main Street, where it was located in the former mansion of General Horvath. Such a good location and a large area of the site made the Soviet consulate stand out among others. There were two buildings on the territory. A new two-storey building for consulate employees was located in the courtyard, surrounded by a fence. Employees of the consulate occupied apartments on the two upper floors, and on the ground floor there was a dining room, technical and office premises. And the mansion itself, in which the consul's family lived, had offices and reception rooms. The territory of the consulate was equipped with a sports field with projectiles, a volleyball court and a tennis court. After 1945, the Consulate General of the USSR continued to be located in this mansion. It was the only and last consulate in Harbin, which closed in 1962. Today, the buildings of the complex are in dilapidated condition and are not used.

Many of the buildings where the apartments and mansions of consuls and vice-consuls, secretaries and employees were located were owned by the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER). For example, Soviet consuls Menin and Orlov lived in houses belonging to the CER ^[27]. The Lithuanian Consulate is located in a house for railway employees at the corner of Customs Street and Fudutunsky Lane.

During its presence, the Japanese Consulate has changed several buildings. The first of them was located on the corner of Novotorgovaya and Sadovaya Streets and belonged to a large contractor of the Chinese-Eastern Railway, Wang ho-wen ^{[28, p. 156]}, where the consulate was opened in 1907. The International Red Cross was also located here. The apartment building was demolished in 2001. Its architecture combined elements of rational Art Nouveau, which were not quite typical for that time. Architectural details such as dark vertical panels, a wide white belt around the perimeter of the third floor, a complexly profiled cornice with crackers and brackets, in which the color contrast is well read, are clearly visible in the preserved photographs.

Two other buildings, which housed consulates, have survived to the present day. This building is located on Vokzalny Prospekt, where the Consulate General was located from 1936 to 1945, and the consul's mansion on Novotorgovaya Street. Both buildings were designed by architect Y. P. Zhdanov. The Consulate General, located in the building of the Harbin branch of the Russian Railways on Vokzalny Prospekt, was made in the Baroque style with abundant decor. The asymmetry of the building, accentuated by risalites and hyperscale windows, emphasized its individuality in the construction of the street.

Another building along Tsitsikarskaya Street has not been preserved. It was a stone building on a high basement with a wide front staircase, built in 1907. It was used for the needs of the consulate until 1915. The architecture of the building had Neo-Renaissance features with elements of classicism.

The American Consulate was opened in 1907 on Novotorgovaya Street between Bolshoy Prospekt and Sadovaya Street. The head of the consulate was Reid Fischer ^{[13, p. 53]}. Unfortunately, the building has not been preserved to this day.

In 1910, the second residence of the American consulate was the Samsonovich apartment building, located on the corner of Bolshoy Prospekt and Azhiheiskaya Street. The consulate occupied an advantageous angular position. The style of rational Art Nouveau was traced in its architecture, and a dominant trapezoidal tent stood out in the corner part of the building.

In 1924, the U.S. Consulate was located in an apartment building located at 102 Bolshoy Prospekt, between Azhiheiskaya and Girinskaya Streets ^[29]. G. K. Henson became consul, and P. M. Dudko became Vice consul. As is customary, consuls and vice-consuls lived next to the consulate. Vice-Consul P. M. Dudko lived on Girinskaya Street, 27, in the Chi Shi-fu house.

Unlike other countries, Germany has placed its first consulates in the commercial and industrial area of the Marina. The first building of the German Consulate was opened in 1909 in a two-story brick apartment building on Artillery Street between Commercial and Police streets. The asymmetric construction of the ordinary blocked-up street was distinguished by contrasting decorative elements made of brick, painted white ^[30]. Daumiller was appointed consul, and later Heinze. The second building, which housed the consulate, was the building of a former apartment building on Commercial Street, this building has survived to the present day and is now used as an office ^[31]. A commemorative plaque is installed on its facade, which reads: "The building of the German Consulate in Harbin. It is built of brick." Based on the collected materials, it can be argued that these were the first consulates opened in the area.

Later, in 1920, the German Consulate was opened in the area of the New City, on Azhiheiskaya Street, between Bolshoy Prospekt and Sadovaya Street. The building in which the consulate was located was located opposite the Portuguese Consulate. Initially, this house belonged to the Popov brothers. Currently, the primary school library is located in this building.

In addition to the German consulate, consulates of other countries were located in the Marina area. For example, in 1911, the first French agency opened on Kavkazskaya Street. The Belgian Vice-Consulate has been located in the same building since 1913. The two-storey building, rectangular in plan, made in brick style, has not survived to the present day.

It was possible to identify other addresses where the consulates of Belgium were located, this is a building on the corner of Commercial and Novogorodnaya Streets, as well as on the corner of Diagonal and Artillery Streets, on the 3rd Line, Tsitsikarskaya and Birzhevaya Streets.

The first French consulate was opened in 1907 in the eastern part of Bolshoy Prospekt. From 1916 to 1947, the consulate was located on Hospital Street, in the former Skidelsky mansion. The Portuguese consulate also worked there. The building was built in 1914 by architect M. A. Troyanovsky for merchant L. N. Skidelsky. The asymmetrical facade is grouped by volumes of different heights, a triangular pediment rising above the Corinthian columns stands out on the left side of the facade, and a dome on the right. The building is well preserved and is included in the list of protected objects.

The British Consulate was opened in 1911, it was located at the intersection of Bolshoy Prospekt and Telinskaya Street. In the early 30s, the consulate moved to Vokzalnaya Street in a building specially built for consular needs. The consulate was built in 1930 according to a project created in 1919, in the strict manner of the Gregorian style characteristic of the early British period. This three-storey building has a rectangular shape. Its symmetrical plastered facade is decorated with columns of the Ionic order in two floors. The third floor of the building is separated by a strongly projecting cornice.

One of the most notable consular buildings that have survived to the present day was located in Nikolaevsky Lane, near the central square (former Cathedral Square). We are talking about the Gibello-Socco mansion, which was built in 1919 and became the consul of Italy in 1920. The Consulate occupied an angular position and faced the Cathedral Square with its main facade. There was a plot of land around the mansion, surrounded by an elegant concrete fence. The walls of the building are decorated with various bas-reliefs and stucco, and the sculptural compositions are mainly focused on the central volume, which give it a romantic look characteristic of the Renaissance. Despite the fact that the mansion is now surrounded by tall modern buildings, it has not lost its appeal.

The second preserved consulate building is located at the intersection of Sungariysky Prospekt and Engineering Street. It was built in 1924 of brick and concrete and is a one-story building. In addition to the consular building, additional office buildings were located on the site. The composition of the site is aimed at forming an area around which the consular buildings are concentrated. The architecture of the buildings has features of modernity. This can be seen in the outlines of window openings, plastic walls and simple, but very characteristic decor.

In 1926, the Italian Consulate was located on the corner of Girinskaya Street and Boulevard Avenue. Unfortunately, this building no longer exists. The consulate also served Romanian citizens ^[18]. It was an interesting small building in the style of historicism, which attracted attention with its multi-height volumes, completed with tall tents with spires. The use of brickwork and plastered elements gave the building a special expressiveness.

Numerous diasporas opened representative offices near their settlement areas. Unlike the major European powers, these diasporas were small and did not actively build new facilities.

In January 1916, the Danish Royal Consulate opened on Polevoy Street in the Marina area in Harbin, which operated until 1946. At that time, the consular functions were performed by the Consul of Russia Traushold, and then he was replaced by the Danish Consul Jacobson. The brick consulate building, built in an eclectic style with Art Nouveau elements, is still a significant architectural landmark of the street.

The Consulate of the Polish Republic was opened in 1920 in the building of the "Polish Pan" on a remote street. This building was home to the consulate until 1941. The building was an asymmetrical brick structure consisting of two volumes: the main three-storey and an attached one and a half floors. The extension ended with a wooden veranda, the entrance to which led through the third floor of the main volume. The horizontal linear division of the facades contrasted with the dynamics of the risalites, completed with curved attics, which gave the building an expressive silhouette.

Although the building of the Dutch Consulate has not survived to this day, it remains an interesting example of a building with exotic features in the development of the city. The contrast between the low and high volumes of the building was created by the tower and the pitched roof. Bright colors and a combination of different materials gave the building typical Dutch features.

During the research, it was not possible to find buildings that housed consulates and representative offices of some countries. For example, the Swedish Vice-consulate, opened in 1926 on Khorvatovsky Prospekt, or the Latvian Vice-Consulate on Belgian Street. The buildings where the representative office of the Republic of Lithuania was located on Customs and Commercial Streets, the representative office of the Republic of Estonia on Line 5, Boulevard Avenue and Girinskaya Street, the Austrian Consulate and the Georgian Consulate on Line 2 (Georgian Street) were also lost.

It is curious that the consulates not only fulfilled their direct duties, but also helped the represented citizens to adapt. For example, the Georgian consulate, located at the Georgian society, housed a sports club for young people ^[32] and taught Georgian language courses ^[33]. A school was opened at the Czechoslovak Consulate, for which Consul R. F. Geyna was responsible ^[34]. Thus, it can be said that the activities of consulates reflected not only on the formation of the image of Harbin, but also generally created favorable conditions for life in a territory far from the homeland.

Now the preserved buildings have different purposes. Some of them are owned by the Chinese government, others have retained residential functions, and others are used for commercial purposes. None of these buildings have retained their original consular functions, even those that were built specifically for them. Buildings located far from tourist routes are gradually losing their original attractiveness. The facades of buildings facing the main streets of the city are periodically restored, and the interior layout is significantly changed. Most of the yard areas are used for parking and have become part of the urban environment.

Conclusion. Analyzing the location of consular offices, it can be seen that most of them are located in the New Town area. This area was distinguished not only by its representative buildings, but also by a more developed infrastructure. Most consular offices are located along or near tram tracks. This speaks not only about their transport accessibility, but also about the importance of their visual perception. A well-chosen location for consulates has often become a decisive factor in political dominance. The choice of location was determined not only by its strategic position in the urban structure, but also by the degree of emotional impact.

Engineers paid special attention to the expressiveness of the buildings. To do this, they used towers, domes of various shapes and complexities, decorative tents topped with spires, so we can say that the accent completion of buildings was of great importance during this period. With the help of portals, risalites and bay windows, a complex plastic solution was created, which was emphasized by individual stylistic solutions of the objects. The active use of stucco decoration, sculptural compositions and ornaments gave the objects great expressiveness. If we analyze the consular buildings, we can see that there is a desire to emphasize national identity in their architecture. However, today, due to the active high-rise modern construction, the emphasis on these objects in urban development is lost.

During the study, it was possible to establish new addresses where consular offices were located, which indicates a broader development of international relations. The presence of consulates of Sweden, Latvia, Estonia, Austria and Georgia, which were mainly located in the places of national settlement of the respective diasporas, became especially noticeable. Although the buildings have not been preserved, they are of interest for a more thorough study. This study can help to discover these objects on historical panoramas of the city, which will allow for a better understanding of the architectural features of representative buildings in these countries.