Chinese calligraphy in music: from gesture to sound

Din Chun Postgraduate student; Department of Music History; Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory named after M.I. Glinka 603005, Russia, Nizhny Novgorod region, Nizhny Novgorod, Piskunov str., 40 1156160611@qq.com

The art of Chinese calligraphy has its roots in ancient times. From the first hieroglyphic samples of writing, it has gone a long way to form various styles and schools that make up an important part of the national cultural heritage. In China, calligraphy is called "silent music" ^{[1, p. 63]}, connecting spatial and temporal dimensions. National researchers emphasize the inner connection of calligraphy with singing (rhythm, intonation, accents), with instrumental music (smoothness or sharpness of movements, change of multidirectional melodic lines and pitch, density or sparsity of texture, rhythmic speed of brush movement and dynamic pressure on paper, compositional organization of white sheet space), with dance (plastic calligraphic gesture, the dynamics of brush movement, lines imprinted in the drawing).

Historically, calligraphy and music are closely related. The ancient expression "singing and dancing of brush and ink ()" is a well–known cliche in China describing the essence of the art of writing ^{[2, p. 8]}. Major modern masters give their calligraphic collections musical names. So, Lin Junsheng () entitled his work "Songs of points and lines" (""), and Chien Mingshan () revealed the expressive title of "Song of savagery and secrecy" ("").

The dots and lines in the hieroglyph can be likened to dance steps. In "Conversations about Calligraphy," Wang Jingzhi writes that comparing writing with dancing helps to understand brush movements: "Kai's writing is slow dancing filled with various gestures and elegant movements; xing's writing is mobile dancing in which figures sway slightly, spin and rotate easily around the stage; and Cao's writing is fast dancing, in which the figures move rapidly, gallop and take off vigorously, as if caught up in the wind" ^{[3, p. 192]}. Dancer and writer Lin Hwaimin showed this in practice by creating a synthetic composition in which calligraphy and choreography merge together: "Although dance cannot paint specific hieroglyphs, it can express their plasticity. My piece begins with weighty “heavy” strokes, then moves into an elegantly flowing line, and is replaced again by “dense” strokes. This process resembles building a musical structure. Balance and the relationship between gestures and lines are an important source of inspiration for choreography" ^{[2, p. 9]}. 

Jin Xuezhi in his book "On the aesthetics of Calligraphy" notes that "the brush and ink are controlled by emotions, and the lines of the hieroglyph should leave a trace of these emotions" ^{[1, p. 73]}. The importance of a soulful, sensually filled gesture is confirmed by the tradition of imitation (linmo) of outstanding works by famous calligraphers, which is an integral part of artistic practice. In the study "Chinese Poetic Aesthetics in Words and Images: Chinese poetry, Calligraphy and Painting", Yuk Kao sees the calligrapher as a performer of someone else's score, copying classical masterpieces ^{[4, p. 76]}. He transfers spatial writings into the world of time and movement, revealing their hidden plastic and emotional potential.

The graphic sign appears as a result of the action of the "force configuration" – shi (?). This is an important aesthetic concept, especially relevant in the context of modern compositional work. The concept of shi is universal, it permeates the entire national culture - from the religion of Taoism to military affairs and art (literature, painting, calligraphy and music). In various cases, shi is translated from Chinese as "force", "gesture", "tendency", "potential", "impulse" arising from transformations and transformations of the celestial qi energy (?): "In a broad sense, we are talking about a certain conjugation, a constellation of many forces – the magnitude is not so much quantitative, how much quality. In this case, the force cannot be localized, is devoid of objectivity, but stems from the totality (potentially limitless) of the factors that make up the “current moment". In essence, in the "configurations of force" we are not dealing with things, but with the relationships between them and not with a separate, finite action, but with a kind of infinite effectiveness" ^[5].

Shi gets its visual embodiment in calligraphy, as evidenced by the emergence of the concept of "written shi" () at the beginning of the first millennium AD. The conjugation of interconnected graphic segments in the structure of Chinese characters is determined by the "configuration of force". In calligraphy, shi finds himself both in the spatial dimension, when "the elements are in harmony, "echo" with each other and, thanks to this comprehensive agreement, can replenish themselves, acquire wholeness", and in the temporal dimension, which gives "participation in immortality, understood as eternal renewal" ^[5]. 

The connections between calligraphy and music can be identified at different levels.  Each graphic stroke (it corresponds to a sign made between the initial contact of the brush with the paper and its final rise) can be likened to a note on a musical stand, each symbol (consisting of a well—defined sequence of calligraphic strokes) is a sequence of notes interrupted by pauses equivalent to an empty space on paper. It is possible to compare musical intonation with the movement of the brush, dynamics with the intensity of writing, the density of the stroke with the textured organization, tempo with the speed of the brush, the saturation of the development of the material with calligraphic handwriting. In music and calligraphy, expression is achieved through a temporal sequence of well-defined actions: a series of notes that make up the melody, and a number of "strokes" that make up the hieroglyph.

In the works of modern Chinese composers, calligraphy receives individual refraction and reading. One of the features of the interpretation is an appeal to the main "treasures of the intellectual's office (wenren)" (Wen Fang si bao) - the means of writing (bi brush, mo ink, zhi paper, yang inkwell). An important aspect is the embodiment of the properties of ink and the specifics of using a brush – the most important tools in the hands of a calligrapher: "The essence of the four jewels is not only their aesthetic value, but above all those qualities inherent in them and cultivated in them, which are aimed at responsiveness, sensitivity of the material — the ability to capture the most subtle movements of the master's hand, transmit the nuances of accelerations and decelerations, presses and loosenings of the brush, respond to the pulsation of her touches on paper, to the music of her "touching" paper "dance steps", to gradations in tone movement, to transitions in the degree of moisture of the ink stroke" ^{[6, p. 197]}.

An attempt to reflect the various qualities of the carcass in music was made by the modern Malaysian composer Li Chitsan () in his piece for viola solo "Mixing IV. Variegation in Color" ("Interfusion IV" – Variation in Color – "", 2012) [The full score and the author's comments on it are contained in the work: 7]. In traditional Chinese calligraphy, it is customary to use only black ink in four basic states – dry, wet, concentrated and light. The author sought to convey the dynamic energy of different types of carcasses and find their sound "equivalents". Chinese calligraphers believe that when preparing for writing, it is important to achieve the right ratio of concentrated and light ink, which, in interaction, produce an impression of beauty on the eye, completely independent of the meaning of what is written.

The effect of dry mascara is created by applying ink to the tip of the brush with the addition of a small amount of water. The result may be some distortion of the strokes of the hieroglyph. The composer achieves a similar effect in volume 45: the violist begins to press the bow against the string on the first lobe, gradually increasing the force of its pressure. At the same time, the soloist plays pizzicato with his left hand to create a "rhythmic noise" that mimics random interference, a feeling of carelessness created when writing with dry ink.

Fig. 1. Li Chitsang. Mixing IV. Variegation in color. Tt. 43-45.

Wet ink is formed by applying a large amount of water to the brush pile and using the usual amount of ink. The calligraphic image assumes softness, blurriness, transparency, which are designed to harmonize positive and negative energies. The composer reproduces the work with wet ink through the use of overtones, tremolos, trills, playing behind a stand.

Concentrated ink fills the space with full, bright, energetic calligraphic strokes. The violist plays two voices using the molto sul ponticello technique. The composer exposes the crescendo, emphasizing each dissonant interval of the sforzando.

Fig. 2. Li Chitsang. Mixing IV. Variegation in color. Vol. 82.

The effect of dark and dense layering of ink is found in the piece by composer Yixian Chen (Yi-hsien Chen) "Sparkling" ("Sparking", 2020) for twelve instruments. The sliding sharp glissandi on fortissimo for violin, viola and cello, abruptly ending with the sixteenth marcato, create a feeling of a broken stroke saturated with color.

Fig. 3. Yixian Chen. Sparkling. Tt. 50-52.

In light ink, a significantly smaller amount of ink is used, which causes associations with a continuous flow. The musical gesture should symbolize constant movement, reflecting the inherent fluidity and transparency of this type of writing. Li Chitsang resorts to the barely audible "murmuring" (remark "murmuring") of the viola on multiple pianissimo, voicing varied chromatic phrases in free meter with alternating legato and marcato.

Fig. 4. Li Chitsang. Mixing IV. Variegation in color. Vol. 82.

Polyline ink involves a combination of concentrated and light ink, which expresses the interaction of yin and yang impulses, a balance of multidirectional forces. In music, the contrast of color and saturation of ink is embodied by changing the extreme dynamic poles. The violist performs arpeggio on forte, holding the final note of c, which then gradually subsides to pianissimo on the first beat of the next bar. Having almost disappeared into silence, the sound begins to gain strength on the crescendo, returning to a bright, filled forte, maintaining this dynamic until the end of the passage.

Fig. 5. Li Chitsang. Mixing IV. Variegation in color. Vol. 58.

The spraying of the carcass contains an element of randomness or uncertainty. The author seeks to present the inherent spontaneity and some carelessness inherent in calligraphy using the col legno battuto technique. The result of this playing technique is an unpredictable musical gesture that correlates with the physical actions necessary to create the effect of ink splashes in calligraphy.

Fig. 6. Li Chitsang. Mixing IV. Variegation in color. vol. 15-16.

As a result of the combination of various ink techniques, the subtle interaction of different types of ink with each other, a complex and changeable texture is created, characterized by a wide dynamic range and constant volume switches, as well as an elegant play of timbre paints that arise when using diverse strokes and sound production techniques.

To an equal extent, the attention of the composers is focused on the calligraphic mastery of the brush (bi), more precisely, the "hair brush" (mao bi), which combines spatial and temporal principles. The smear is fundamental to the creation of Chinese characters, encapsulating the crystallization of energy. The nature of the "trace" of the brushstroke is determined by the sensitivity of the calligrapher and the fluidity of movement. In a sound context, a brush stroke can be represented as a musical gesture, a sign reflecting the choreography of a plastic gesture. The "dance" of the brush is associated with the trajectory, speed, pressure, and changes in the density of adhesion to the paper.

In the piece "Brush Stroke" for chamber orchestra ("Brush Stroke", 2005), Lei Liang presents a calligraphic technique through the prism of his author's concept of "one-tone polyphony" ("one-tone polyphony", one-tone polyphony), reminiscent of the micropolyphonic "thickening" of sound in the works of the Hungarian classical music Gyorgy Ligeti.  The idea arose under the influence of the repertoire of the Chinese stringed instrument guqin, on which one note can be performed in a hundred different ways of finger technique. The melodic line in Guqin music is not only a sequence of notes, but also a series of multidirectional gestures, which can be partially correlated with calligraphy [See About this: 8]. The composer likens the concept of "one-tone polyphony" to a brush held by an artist, controlling its movement and pressure. When running the head, the ink in the villi inevitably spreads over the paper, exposing individual layers. The direction of the "brush" in the composer's hands determines the pitch changes, and the "hairs" are musical timbres (subtle "recoloring" of one sound at a slow tempo).

In the first bars of the piece, the tone f undergoes a timbre transformation several times. In the second bar, it is performed by pianissimo oboe, marimba and vibraphone at the same pitch. The tremolo of the marimba and the short attack of the vibraphone serve to strengthen the starting point. In vol. 3, clarinet and flute gently join in. An eighth later, the f tone begins to sound for the violin and viola. Following the bright paint of the crotals, the calligraphic line supporting the f is completed with a short glissanding gesture of the clarinet and flute.

Fig. 7. Lei Liang. A brush stroke. Tt. 3-4. Plan.

Composer Yixian Chen likens a calligraphic stroke to a heterophonic texture: when the ink in the brush hairs dries, the smear splits into many smaller and thinner lines. Sometimes pressing on a brush moving across the paper at a certain angle can cause the pile to diverge. In the already mentioned composition "Sparkling" for twelve instruments, the composer turns to heterophony, drawing inspiration from both calligraphy and traditional ensemble Chinese nanguan (nanyin) music. The author comments: "The first section of the play, vol. 1-51, is based on a single heterophonic theme. I treat it like one big brush. Each timbre and its variations in this line are similar to the movement of individual brush hairs when the ink spreads, producing the most bizarre shapes" ^{[9, p. 18]}.

A special role in Chinese calligraphy is played by paper (zhi), which can be understood as a space of composition. However, it is not a "static" state, but a field that captures the impulses, tension and release of shi energy in the process of calligraphic gestures.

In the practice of copying classical samples of hieroglyphic writing, the tradition of the "imaginary square" has developed. It is an invisible area or "frame" used for structuring, organizing and arranging strokes. The "distribution and division" (fengjian) of space ^{[6, p. 206]} affects the result in terms of the shape, scale and structure of each individual stroke. The middle square is usually located in the center (zhong gong is the "middle palace", a square in a grid for writing hieroglyphs, proposed by the famous calligrapher Ouyang Xun). The main idea is to achieve harmony – balance and integrity. The calligrapher is not limited by strict rules: he develops and organizes his own options for lining a sheet of paper based on his personal style and the context of the work.   

In Li Chitsang's play "Variegation in Color", the composer relies on the calligraphic principles of organizing the space of the composition, inscribing intonation gestures into a certain metric grid ("imaginary squares") – a kind of "skeleton" (chien chia ), which is then "divided" by clock features according to the number of fractions: 2/4 (bars 6-8), 4/4 (bars 9-11), 2/4 (bars 12). In this fragment, the composer focuses on the micro-level of musical gesticulation: voicing a single tone on a string with a bow (arco), the violist simultaneously plays its pizzicato with his left hand, marking each bar with a double stroke. In vol. 9. time thickens: tense trembling is replaced by an emphatic marcato, ending with a sustained pedal, against which a "moaning" semitone intonation appears, ending with a spectacular pizzicato with a deafening glissando (ffff).

Fig. 8. Li Chitsang. Mixing IV. Variegation in color. Tt. 6-12.

Based on the idea of organizing the score sheet using calligraphy methods (bubai's "distribution of white space" ^{[6, p. 206]}), the author uses pauses and fermats to separate squares and "adjust" the ratio of time intervals between musical gestures. According to the composer's idea, different types of fermats perform the function of "collecting time": these are a kind of outlet points for the performer's energy, maintaining an approximately prescribed length and character (for example, the remark above the fermata in measure 46 indicates "absolute silence and meditativeness").  The duration and space of music are determined by the musician's perception.

Each calligraphic stroke not only leaves a visible mark on the paper, but also contains an invisible charge of internal energy that sets the brush in motion and enlivens the line. The control and balance of these components have always been a sign of the true skill of the artist. The elements of graphic notation used by Li Chitsan make it possible to bring the necessary quality of spontaneity, improvisational freedom into the outline of sound calligraphic strokes.

Squared in t. 69-71, the author goes into the noise sphere, using tapping on strings, pizzicato and string friction, imitating the technique of playing the guqin.

Fig. 9. Li Chitsang. Mixing IV. Variegation in color. Tt. 69-71.

An important role is played by the performing manner of voicing the sonorous score, an individual approach and inner hearing of the work. The composer provides the violist with a large measure of freedom of interpretation, which is entirely consistent with the concept of the original recognizable handwriting of the master calligrapher. The visual perception of the musician's figure also becomes fundamental – not only the acoustic sound of the instrument, whispers, rustles, bright flashes of sound, constantly floating shifts of contrasting dynamics, but also movements, plasticity of the violist, physical efforts that generate energy and crystallization of gesture. All this allows us to draw parallels with the genre of instrumental theater – synthetic in nature and characterized by the coordinating function of the composer-director, the role of the performer as an actor, as well as an explicitly or covertly expressed plot (the author's remark at the beginning of the work instructs the violist to "sing with his mouth closed, like a praying monk").

  So, many modern Chinese composers have fallen into the field of calligraphy's attraction, embodying this multifaceted art on different levels. With the help of numerous avant-garde techniques of sound production, inventive strokes, methods of textural organization, intensive dynamics change, the authors strive to embody in music various properties of ink, brush movement techniques during recording and even "translate" the principles of spatial organization of a blank sheet of paper in calligraphy into a timeline measuring pauses and fermata in music. The transfer of a visual gesture to the acoustic plane brings their searches closer to the work of masters from other countries: O. Messiaen, T. Takemitsu, K. Saariaho and others ^[10]. Meanwhile, the idea of "omusicalization", transposing the very means of calligraphic writing (ink, brushes, paper) into the field of sounds makes the presented compositions a unique contribution of Chinese musicians to the treasury of world art.