The development of methodological foundations in studying the emotional sphere of blind people in the works of Russian scholars in the pre-war period

Markelova Tat'yana Vladimirovna ORCID: 0000-0002-2489-7129 Doctor of Psychology Professor, Department of General and Social Psychology, Lobachevsky National Research Nizhny Novgorod State University 603022, Russia, Nizhny Novgorod region, Nizhny Novgorod, Gagarin Ave., 23 markelova16@yandex.ru

SHahina Alena Sergeevna ORCID: 0009-0004-8912-169X Department of General and Social Psychology, Lobachevsky National Research Nizhny Novgorod State University 603022, Russia, Nizhny Novgorod region, Nizhny Novgorod, Gagarin Ave., 23 alenasergeevna9458@gmail.com

Introduction. The study of the human emotional sphere is one of the fundamental tasks in modern science, which includes an extensive set of methods and approaches. The analysis of the emotional sphere in blind and visually impaired people is particularly difficult due to the limitations and peculiarities of their sensory perception of the surrounding reality.

This theoretical and analytical study is devoted to an overview of the historical stages of the development of methodology and methods for studying the emotional sphere of people with visual impairment, starting from the end of the 19th century and up to the early 30s of the 20th century. Scientific interest in the psychological life of the blind in Russia arose not only because of the needs associated with the development of theoretical foundations for their education and training, but also because of the awareness of the importance of studying the psyche in conditions of narrowing of the sensory sphere, which is an important aspect of general psychology. In order to further develop typhlopsychology, as well as overcome the crisis in this field of knowledge, it was necessary to carry out a number of transformations based on a unified approach to the study of the emotional sphere of people with visual impairment.

Perestroika began with a practical request for the education of the blind, whose numbers increased significantly during the First World War and the Civil War, as well as with an interest in abnormal children, which was caused by a theoretical interest in their psyche.

Presentation of the main material of the article. Scientific interest in the study of the psychology of the blind in Russia began to appear in the 80s of the XIX century. In the journal "Russian Blind Man", it was suggested that it was necessary to investigate this problem. This article was the first case of highlighting the psyche of the blind as a subject of study and discussion ^[16].

Typhlopsychology, which existed in the pre-revolutionary period, was based on the belief that lack of will is a hallmark of the blind. Researchers emphasize differences in the emotional states of the blind compared to the norm, and negative changes are considered as typical manifestations of blind behavior. The Russian typhlopedagogue A. I. Skrebitsky notes: "The blind man is striking in his apathy, lack of will, and inability to awaken him to activity." A.I. Skrebitsky. "Upbringing and education of the blind and their vision in the West", 1903). However, the scientific community is beginning to realize that such statements about the lack of will of the blind are not scientifically justified, and typhlopsychology requires clarification of the methodology for studying this phenomenon ^[18].

In the context of family education, a visual defect contributes to the emergence of unfavorable conditions for the formation of pathological character traits that negatively affect the mental development of a child. Such conditions include hyperprotection of others and social isolation. As a result, children may develop maladaptive behaviors such as self-centeredness, negativism, apathy, and emotional inflexibility. In addition, it is possible to form low self-regulation and difficulties in social interaction (indifference to others, mental callousness), as well as a deterioration in cognitive activity manifested in limited curiosity ^[18].

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Russia began to actively develop problems related to the analysis and research of the psychoemotional development of people with visual impairment. Initial studies on mental adaptation and compensatory functions in persons with visual impairment will be published in specialized periodicals. During this period, the following people were engaged in research on this topic: G. P. Nedler "The most unfortunate of the blind" (1889), M. Dufour "On the physiology of the blind" (1894), G. I. Chelpanova "Essays from the psychology of the Blind" (1894). In these works, various aspects of the mental development of people with visual impairment are considered in detail and the potential possibilities of defect compensation are discussed.

With the development of typhlopsychology, it overcame the methodological crisis that arose in psychology as a result of contradictions between empirical and subjective-idealistic approaches. It is important to note that approaches to the study of the psyche in the fields of introspective and experimental typhlopsychology differ: experimental studies are devoted to the subject-figurative content of consciousness, such as sensation, perception, imaginative memory, while higher mental functions - thinking, feelings and will - are studied only by introspection. This is the point of view taken by the leading Russian typhlopsychologists G.I. Surov, V.I. Rudnev, A.A. Krogius, who oppose the materialistic position of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, A.F. Lazursky and V.M. Bekhterev ^[11].

The position of psychologist and founder of Russian typhlopsychology A.A. Krogius (1871-1933) becomes characteristic in this regard. He insists on the importance of experimental research of elementary mental functions, at the same time focusing on the inaccessibility of higher mental functions for objective research, and also includes emotional-volitional processes that require the use of the method of self-observation ^[23]. In the studies cited by A.A. Krogius, it was revealed that blindness leads to dysfunctions not only in in the cognitive sphere, but also affects the comprehensive aspects of an individual's mental life. It has a profound effect on mental organization and personality formation. Blindness can lead to the formation of various neurological pathologies among people with dysfunctional vision. There are predispositions to hypochondriacal ideas and neurotic disorders due to a tendency to suspiciousness, introversion, a tendency to introspection and increased attention to somatic sensations. The blind often have facial features, such as hypomimicity and amimicity, which can be caused by both general muscular hypotension and the lack of ability to imitate the facial movements of others. A.A. Krogius clarifies that limited facial movements do not indicate a decrease in the emotional life of people with visual impairment, but are the result of adaptation to the peculiarities of their perception of the environment the world ^[8]. In the context of the emotional characteristics of the blind, A.A. Krogius's research indicates the possible formation of negative moral and volitional character traits and premature disorganized sexual drives. The explanation of this phenomenon requires taking into account many factors, including physiological characteristics, shortcomings in family education and other socio-psychological aspects – "insufficiency, due to external conditions, sublimation of sexual energy, insufficiency of its diversion to other, higher spheres of life." (Krogius A.A. "Psychology of the blind and its significance for general psychology and pedagogy". - Saratov, 1926. p. 123.).

A similar position on the application of the introspective method of studying the emotional sphere of the blind is taken by psychologist G. I. Chelpanov (1862-1936), who argues that the features of sensations, perception and attention discovered as a result of the experiment in persons with visual impairment have a specific effect on higher mental functions, giving them a special imprint that remains incomprehensible in the context of direct experimental research ^[1]. In the context of psychology, since all objectively obtained information becomes available to the researcher only through its translation into the language of subjective self-observation, it cannot be argued that an exclusively objective approach is used. Observing the mental life of a child or trying to understand the mental component of a mentally ill person, a psychologist interprets the study based on his own experience of experiencing similar conditions ^[25].

G. I. Chelpanov notes the existence of a connection between bodily and mental phenomena, which is already established in everyday life. If a person is born blind, then there is a huge gap in his mental life. First of all, he has absolutely no visual representations. Further, if a normally sighted person has any thoughts or feelings, he can express them with the help of any bodily movements, facial expressions, spoken words, gestures, etc. and in general all mental states can be expressed with the help of bodily movements. And, based on pathopsychology, it is concluded that the disease of any part of the brain entails certain changes in mental life. Thus, G. I. Chelpanov argues that there is a connection between bodily and mental phenomena that people with visual disabilities create using a unique model of perception and representation of the world, which differs from those formed by people with normal vision ^[24].

The philosophy of introspectionism leads A.A. Krogius, G.I.Chelpanov. A.M. Shcherbina to exaggerate the overcompensation theory towards accelerated development of higher mental functions in the blind, including the emotional sphere. Reducing external influences allows them to focus and activate their consciousness, which contributes to the deepening and enlightenment of their spiritual life ^[11].

In the story of the blind philosopher and typhlopedagogue A.M. Shcherbin (1874-1934) "The Blind musician Korolenko: as an attempt by the sighted to penetrate the psychology of the blind" (1916), the author reveals the world of emotions and perceptions of blind people. He emphasizes that the emotional reactions of blind people are not inferior in expressiveness and depth to the emotions of sighted people. Moreover, their feelings are often more intense and penetrating. The musician, despite his blindness, has the ability to evoke a wide range of emotions in other people - from admiration and delight to pity and sympathy. This indicates the strong emotional resources of blind people and their ability to influence the surrounding social environment ^[26].

According to the research of Soviet psychiatrist V.P. Protopopov, it is confirmed that the concentration reaction in people with somatic defects is more stable and intense compared to normotypic people. He explains this by the peculiarities of the dominant process, which in turn increases the potential of the overcompensation process in people with defects. ^[5]. In his writings, typhlopedagogue B. I. Kovalenko (1890-1969) similarly notes that in people with a visual analyzer defect, emotions are a key means of communication and interaction with the world, which is why the emotions of blind and visually impaired people play an important role in their self-expression and perception of the environment. Consequently, as part of the overcompensation process, the emotional experience of this category of people can be deeper and more piercing, since the blind rely on other sensory perceptions to understand the world ^[7].

The opposite approach to the study of the emotional sphere in blind people was proposed by scientists G.P. Nedler, V.I. Rudnev and G.I. Surov. Their research focused on identifying the effects of blindness on all aspects of the physical and psychological lives of blind individuals. They noted that blindness is reflected in the chronic deficiency and insufficient content of their spiritual life, as well as in a limited spatial representation, the presence of specific characterological and volitional qualities, as well as negative habits, etc.

Typhlopedagogue G. P. Nedler (1845-1917) focuses on the deep and peculiar mental development of the blind. According to his theory, depriving a person of one of the main analyzers leads to limited opportunities to achieve a high degree of intellectual and emotional development, which people with functional sensory organs are usually able to achieve. Compensatory adaptations, despite their significance, cannot radically change the inner life of the blind and are insufficient to restore the lost balance with the environment. In this regard, it is important to set realistic goals in the education of the blind, corresponding to their individual capabilities ^[6].

Psychiatrist and medical historian V.I. Rudnev (1870-1951) wrote: "a sighted person keeps his eyes fixed when talking, fixing his gaze on the person with whom he is talking; he has expressed visual attention, he firmly fixes the object, whereas a blind person does not have visual attention, and his eyes do not stop in in one position, but they wander from side to side" (Rudnev V. I. "Psychology of the blind", 1910. p. 25). In addition to the lack of fixation of the eye, the onset of eye movement in conversation in a blind person, expressed by a significant amplitude of movements of the eyeballs, should be explained by the special motor state of the centers of the eye muscles, which occurs during conversation or excitement. When a blind person talks, his motor centers of the eyes come into a state of some excitement. If we assume that the motor centers of the eyes of a blind person are in a special state, different from a normally seeing person, then, consequently, the reaction to mental processes in people with a visual defect is different ^[15].

Russian ophthalmologist G.I. Surov prefers the method of introspection in studying the emotional sphere of the blind, and notes: "To understand the effect of visual deprivation on a person, it is not enough to close or blindfold yourself for a while. In this way, an extremely incomplete concept of blindness from birth would turn out, because because of this condition, impressions obtained as a result of previous use of vision experience will not be excluded" (Surov G.I. "A brief outline of the physiological characteristics of the blind", 1912. P. 5). People with deprivation of the visual analyzer have a special imprint on the psyche, which affects the physical, mental and moral sides of their body. In order to clearly understand the characteristics of this category of people, it is necessary to become more fully familiar with their nature and the physiological characteristics of their body. It is necessary to clearly imagine the physiological relationships between feelings and the influence of these feelings on volitional movements.

There are some peculiarities in the spiritual life of blind people who differ from those who see normally - these peculiarities appeared as a result of the lack of influence of the missing organ of vision on the development of the spiritual forces of the blind. "Blind people are often struck by their restraint, shyness, sometimes turning into distrust. But it is only necessary to awaken these spiritual forces through reasonable education, to fill them properly, as a blind person in the spiritual sphere will differ little from the sighted" ^[22].

Such a methodological approach based on metaphysics did not contribute to a clear definition of the features of the emotional sphere in people with visual disabilities, and also diverted researchers from the materialistic approach, creating artificial obstacles to understanding the psyche of the blind as a real phenomenon with a material basis.

The main representative of materialism and the biologizing approach in the study of the mental and emotional sphere of people with visual deprivation was the physiologist I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905), whose work was aimed at understanding the physiological foundations of human behavior and thinking. He claims that emotions (outside the state of the visual analyzer) can be explained through the study of nervous processes and bodily responses. According to I. M. Sechenov, mental phenomena have a beginning and an end. "Their beginning, for the vast majority of cases, always consists in a more or less easily determined external influence on the so-called feeling surfaces of the body..." (Sechenov I.M. "Physiology of the nervous system", St. Petersburg. 1866. P. 3). The final link of a complete mental (reflex by nature) act is movement. Sechenov concludes that in people with visual deprivation, affective reactions may be evolutionarily conditioned and directly related to the functioning of the nervous system, reflected through physiological reactions that are similar to those observed in sighted people ^[17].

Physiologist V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) came to similar conclusions in the study of the emotional sphere of the blind and visually impaired. Presenting blind subjects with various stimuli, such as sounds, smells or textures, and analyzing physiological and behavioral reactions to them, the scientist draws conclusions about the physiological nature of emotions in blind people and about the universality of physiological mechanisms of emotion manifestation (which appear to be innate or hereditary), regardless of the state of the visual analyzer ^[3]. Defending the materialistic understanding of mental processes in norm and pathology and relying on the teachings of I. M. Sechenov, Bekhterev rejects subjective methods of studying psychopathological phenomena and puts the principle of reflex organization of nervous activity as the basis for their explanation.

I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian physiologist and Nobel laureate, also conducted research on the psyche of people with visual dysfunction. He is interested not only in traditional research in the field of physiology, but also studies various aspects of human behavior and psychology. Pavlov explores how blindness affects the nervous system, reflexes, as well as the general adaptation and functioning of the body of blind people. Pavlov and his colleagues will try to create conditioned reflexes in blind people using sound and tactile stimuli, and discover that blind people can form conditioned reflexes and show similar reactions to stimuli as sighted people. "You see that the unconditioned reflex — to a certain extent blind — becomes, as it were, sighted due to the fact that it is signaled by a mass of external stimuli that had nothing to do with it before" (I. P. Pavlov. "Physiology and pathology of higher nervous activity", 1930. p. 8) ^[14]. Thus, Pavlov shows that blindness is not an obstacle to the formation of conditioned reflexes and emotional reactions, and that the nervous system of blind people is able to adapt and function, albeit in a different context than in sighted people ^[13].

The scientific views of A.F. Lazursky (1874-1917) on the structure of personality from the point of view of psychology and human physiology were formed during his work under the guidance of V.M. Bekhterev at the Psychoneurological Institute. Lazursky developed a theory of multi-modality of perception, in which emotions in blind and visually impaired individuals manifest themselves through a variety of non-visual channels, such as tactile sensations, sound perceptions and touch. For example, they can express their emotions through intonation of speech, gestures, tactile interaction or smells ^[9]. He will emphasize that people with visual analyzer deprivation, as well as their seeing peers, experience emotions in response to various stimuli and interpersonal interactions. They can show joy, sadness, fear or affection, as well as express them through verbal and non-verbal interpersonal communication. Therefore, despite the lack of visual stimulation, they retain the ability to perceive and express emotions using other sensory channels.

The biologizing approach to the study of the emotional sphere generates mechanistic-materialistic ways of solving it, and various kinds of extreme idealistic conclusions asserting the dominance and predominance of the biological component. The study of the emotional sphere of blind people exclusively from a materialistic point of view can lead to a narrow focus on biological aspects, ignoring the influence of the social environment, which negatively affects the theory of adaptation of blind individuals.

The limitations of the biologizing approach in the analysis of compensatory processes lead scientists to a sociologizing vision of replacing impaired or lost functions, denying the role of natural and biological factors in humans. Within this context, the theory of overcompensation arises, suggesting that there is an inextricable link between a biological defect and the desire for social mental compensation; organic deficiencies can lead to a strong desire to compensate for them, becoming the main incentive for development. In the collection, edited by the Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky in 1924, devoted to the education and upbringing of abnormal children, the position is put forward that deprivation of the ability to perceive light does not lead to moral torment and does not affect emotional development, provided that the individual experiences moral satisfaction from his social position and is able to satisfy his material needs and spiritual needs ^[11].

From a psychological point of view, a physical defect is a dysregulation of social norms of behavior. The interaction of a living organism with the outside world, as a system of adaptive reactions to the environment, is subject to change, with the primary influence of the defect on the restructuring and transformation of social ties and conditions in which behavior normally manifests itself. Therefore, all the psychological characteristics of a defective child have a social, not a biological basis ^[4].

The conclusions drawn from self-observation by blind professor A.V. Birilyov (1871-1959) indicate that psychological blindness is not a misfortune in itself, but becomes a social factor of unhappiness. Blind people do not perceive light in the same way as blindfolded sighted people do not see it, however, "blind people do not see light in the same way as sighted people do not see it with their hand" (Vygotsky L.S. "Issues of education of blind, deaf-mute and mentally retarded children" collection of articles and materials edited by L. S. Vygotsky. 1924. p. 79). The main discovery is that blindness is a normal condition for a blind child, and is felt by him only as a result of social experience, indirectly and secondarily reflected on himself. Not only partial, but even complete blindness, like the loss of light, does not in itself serve as a source of suffering for a person, if only next to this one acquires the opportunity to use their other abilities normally and satisfy material and spiritual needs, and if moral satisfaction is obtained from the position that a blind person occupies among people ^[4].

Defectologist I.A. Sokolyansky comes to the paradoxical conclusion that the upbringing of deaf-deaf children is a more accessible task than the upbringing of deaf-mutes, and in turn, the upbringing of deaf-mute children is easier than the upbringing of blind children, and the blind are easier than the normotypic ones. According to the degree of complexity and difficulty of the pedagogical process, such a sequence is established. Moreover, the author connects this sequence with the use of reflexology to revise views on defectiveness. In his writings, Protopopov also concludes that deaf-blind people have "extreme ease in social communication" ^[10]. A vivid example of social over—compensation is the results of O. I. Skorokhodova's upbringing, education and training — her materialistic worldview, high ideological and political level, rich intellect, artistic development - proof of the great achievements of Soviet pedagogy, the Soviet education system. Quite correctly, she writes: "In our country there are unlimited opportunities for cultural growth of people. In the sunny land of socialism... everyone can become educated and highly cultured, you only need to love knowledge, strive for it, work hard on yourself" (Skorokhodova O.I. "How I perceive, imagine and understand the world around me", 1972. p. 386) ^[12].

Defectologists I.A. Sokolyansky observes that in infancy, the facial expressions of a blind and deaf-blind child are indistinguishable from the facial expressions of a normotypic child. However, as they grow older, the difference in facial expressions becomes more noticeable, especially if a blind child is forced to live in unfavorable conditions (and for a deaf-blind person this is even more problematic). As a result, the facial features of such children begin to "freeze" and "preserve" already in the early stages of development. In other words, the conditional expressive capabilities of the face cannot fully manifest themselves, and the face of a blind and deaf-blind child acquires a fixed and masklike character ^[19].

In deaf-blind children, especially at first, emotional development lags behind intellectual development. To teach emotional reactions, Sokolyansky creates a special stand with plaster masks, like the Greek theatrical ones. Children touch them and learn to give their faces similar expressions. Cultural emotions developed in this way are further used as educational tools – stimuli and levers that allow the child's behavior to be directed in the right direction ^[27].

The effect of learning amazed psychologist and teacher A.N. Leontiev; in his lectures he characterizes this effect with the word "miracle". "In the era of the formation of Sokolyansky's ideas, such miracles happened quite often... It turned out that the inclusion of facial expressions significantly changed the psyche of the pupils. The fact is that communication by technical means available to them, speech communication, replenished with mimic – emotional, in other words, components for others, sighted people, made communication with them more syntonic, as we say, that is, more attuned to an emotional background, to available emotions" (Leontiev A. N. "Lectures on general psychology". Textbook M.: Sense, 2019, p. 511) ^[10].

The development of typhlopsychology as an autonomous discipline is hindered by the counteracting efforts of individual researchers who deny the presence of significant mental characteristics in the blind. For example, typhlologist F. I. Shoev believes that the study of the psyche of the blind can be carried out within the framework of general psychology. From his point of view, the main task is to restore mental balance, which is disrupted by complete or partial loss of vision ^[21].

Meanwhile, in the works of E.V. Ilyenkov, the role of emotions in the formation of the psyche and personality of a child is ignored; all the attention of the scientist is focused on the processes of "spreading" culture, translation and assimilation of ideas, the "ideal" ^[20].

Such a generalized approach to normotypic and abnormal children, as well as a narrowly sociological understanding of defect compensation, is opposed by the ideologist of Soviet education N.K. Krupskaya (1924). Evaluating the theoretical propositions on overcompensation put forward by L. S. Vygotsky, N. K. Krupskaya notes at the same time that theoretical positions should be brought as close as possible to the practice of combating child disability and persistently search for new forms, means and methods of solving the problem ^[2]. It indicates the need to create certain external conditions taking into account the defect in order to achieve maximum compensatory effect. Sociocultural factors undoubtedly have a significant impact on the mechanisms of compensation for visual defects. If we consider the research of the emotional sphere of the blind only through the prism of sociality, this can lead to the separation of the psyche from its physical foundation, which leaves an imprint on the perception of reality.

Conclusion. The formation of the methodological foundations for the study of the emotional sphere of people with visual impairment in the context of the works of Russian scientists in the pre-war period reflects three main approaches: biologizing, sociologizing and biosocial.

Within the framework of the biologization approach, deprivation of the visual analyzer is not an obstacle to the formation of conditioned reflexes and emotional reactions - the nervous system of blind people is able to adapt and function, as well as in normally seeing people. The study of the emotional sphere of the blind exclusively from a materialistic point of view can lead to a narrow focus on biological aspects, ignoring the influence of the social environment, which negatively affects the theory of adaptation of blind individuals.

The specificity of the sociologizing approach lies in the fact that organic deficiencies open up additional social opportunities for people with disabilities - a strong desire to compensate for their defect becomes the main incentive for the development of personal characteristics. If we analyze the emotional sphere of the blind exclusively through the prism of sociality, there is a risk of separating mental processes from their physical basis, which in turn distorts the perception of reality.

In further research, to understand the essence and manifestation of compensation for visual defects, scientists of the pre-war period used a biosocial approach that takes into account biological and social factors in the formation of the emotional sphere of people with visual deprivation. This approach can serve as a theoretical basis for the study of the mental and emotional characteristics of people with visual analyzer defects and will allow typhlopsychologists to consciously manage the recovery and development of impaired mental functions.

Considering the full picture of socio-cultural factors and their interaction with biological aspects is a necessary foundation for the further development of practical methods of studying the emotional sphere with a visual analyzer defect.

The biosocial approach marked the beginning of an active growth of research into the emotional sphere of blind people. Thus, Soviet psychologists in the pre-war period faced the question of the degree of similarity of the psyche of people with a visual defect with the psyche of normally seeing people. And the question of the uniqueness of the characteristics of the psyche, which requires clarification of the standard of emotional development of people with visual impairment, remained open.