The Issues of Design of the Leningrad Porcelain during the "Thaw" Period: Organic Style vs Functionalism

Shik Ida Aleksandrovna ORCID: 0000-0002-7953-6283 PhD in Art History Associate professor, Department of Theory and History of Art, Russian State University for the Humanities 125047, Russia, Moscow, Miusskaya pl., 6 ida.shik@bk.ru

Introduction

During the Khrushchev "thaw" period, decorative and applied art began to play a significant role in Soviet cultural discourse, allowing bold experiments and attracting many talented artists and sculptors. The aesthetic dominant of the era is becoming the "modern style" — the Soviet version of late modernism. The artistic traditions of Art Nouveau and Art Deco, the creative search of the Russian avant-garde, folk art and archaism, and modern foreign fine and decorative arts became sources of the formation of the new style ^{[1, pp. 45-88]}. The artists had the opportunity to get acquainted with the latter through festivals and exhibitions held in the USSR, foreign magazines, articles in Soviet periodicals, and business trips. In the art of porcelain, the "thaw" manifested itself in the active development of forms, updating the themes of murals, and developing an innovative artistic language that can be described as decorative minimalism ^[2]. The sculptors and artists of the Lomonosov Leningrad Porcelain Factory played a leading role in this process.

In the article "Culture of Form" (1961), N. V. Voronov rightly notes that "one of the characteristic features of the modern style in decorative and applied art is the massive appearance of new forms of products. Such familiar things as cups, glasses, lamps, vases, etc., which have hardly changed for decades, suddenly appear in a completely new form, in a rich variety of new and new forms. Until recently, form, for example, in porcelain or glass, was interpreted primarily as a carrier of decor, as a kind of background for it. Now the independent aesthetic value of the form is becoming more and more established" ^{[3, p. 37]}. In the second half of the 1950s, sculptors abandoned the stucco, relief decorations and complex silhouettes typical of post-war decorative and applied art, and preferred concise modernist solutions. One can draw a certain parallel with the transition from multi-part forms of the Historicist era created using other materials and complemented by sculptural decor to simple and integral forms of Art Nouveau inspired by Far Eastern art. It is interesting to note that both modernity and the "modern style" shared the idea of transforming the world and man by means of art and focused specifically on the object-spatial environment. The works of Western European and Russian porcelain of the Art Nouveau era were widely represented in the collection of the Lomonosov Leningrad Porcelain Factory Museum and could serve as a source of inspiration for artists. No less significant for them were the principles of shaping, developed in the 1920s and 1930s by representatives of suprematism K. S. Malevich and N. M. Suetin, as well as searches in the field of functionalism by E. A. Striker and the development of ideas of organic design in the forms of S. E. Yakovleva. In addition, foreign decorative and applied art, focused on modernist laconism and functionality, also played a role. The purpose of this article is to analyze the problems of shaping in Leningrad porcelain of the "thaw" period. Although the legacy of this period has repeatedly been the subject of exhibition projects and specialized research in the last decade, the issue of porcelain shapes has not yet been considered in detail. The object of the study is the shapes of vases, service sets and other products designed by sculptors of the Leningrad Lomonosov Porcelain Factory in the second half of the 1950s - 1960s. The subject of the study is the artistic originality of the author's forms of this period. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks: 1. To analyze the problems of shaping in porcelain in the 1920s - 1950s; 2. To trace the stylistic evolution of the forms of the "thaw" period; 3. To identify the individual features of the creative handwriting of leading sculptors in form; 4. To analyze how the forms of this time and the general principles of shaping are integrated into the modern context. The research methodology is complex in nature: cultural-historical, formal-stylistic, comparative analysis are used in the work.

The problems of shaping in porcelain of the 1920s – 1950s.

In the first years after the revolution, the artists of the State Porcelain Factory actively used the "linen" of the imperial period, the stocks of which were stored in the storerooms of the enterprise. The forms of the 19th century were very different in their aesthetics: from simple and concise to complex, complemented by sculptural decor. Some of the molds were later redesigned and produced by the factory in the 1920s and 1930s. Among them, it is necessary to note the simple and strict "Chinese" form (developed in the early 1860s), which was actively used by the factory's artists both for thematic (I. I. Riznich's "Bakhchisarai Artisans" service, 1930) and for decorative compositions (M. N. Mokh's "Old Park" service, 1933, both —The State Hermitage Museum). Another imperial form that was in demand during the Soviet period was the Standard service (Standard, developed in 1884-1885) with smoother and more rounded outlines.

The creation of new molds at the State Porcelain Factory was associated with the work of S. V. Chekhonin, the artistic director of the enterprise. In 1922-1923, the forms of the Narkompros tea and coffee sets were developed with their characteristic ovoid body, low arched leg, slightly bent throat and smoothly curved nose ^{[4, p. 36]}. As L. V. Andreeva noted, "the absence of something harsh and dissonant in the objects, calmness in the rhythms and completeness of the drawing of details, the softness of the overall outline and plasticity of the edge, nose and handles were associated with the idea of a peaceful, anxiety-free life" ^{[5, p. 117]}. In 1925-1926, the artist created forms of tea, coffee and table sets for the USSR Embassy in Berlin, distinguished by their Empire solemnity and representativeness. The forms were complemented by relief details, the author of which was N. Y. Danko. The plenipotentiary sets were intended for ceremonial compositions; however, tea pairs of this form were produced in a more widespread circulation.

An important stage in the development of Soviet porcelain was the cooperation with the State Porcelain Factory of the Supremacists K. S. Malevich and his students N. M. Suetin and I. G. Chashnik. In 1923, the shape of K. S. Malevich's famous teapot, a kind of porcelain architecton, was developed. Malevich's teapot, which was more of a conceptual project than a truly utilitarian object, was complemented by no less original half-cups with handles in the form of rectangles. The shape of the architecton was also the basis of N. M. Suetin's inkwell in 1923. In the early 1930s, the artist created strict rectangular shapes of vases, complemented by peculiar flutes (the Architecton vase, 1932-1933). In the future, N. M. Suetin's forms will gravitate towards organic design, preserving laconicism and perfection of proportions. The pinnacle of his quest will be the shapes of the Crocus vase and service (1935), in which he creatively rethinks the motif of this elegant flower, showing it as if slightly opened. In the Crocus form, suprematist geometricism enters into a kind of dialogue with smooth, natural lines.

In 1931, an art laboratory was organized at the Lomonosov State Porcelain Factory. Her tasks included the development of new forms, which were standardized by the Soviet industry in the 1920s and 1930s, and the development of murals. In 1932, N. M. Suetin was invited to the position of artistic director of the enterprise. At the same time, the Hungarian ceramist E. A. Striker was involved in cooperation with the plant. The result of their joint work on new forms was the strict and concise service "Intourist" (1933), which was based on the shape of a cylinder. Simple and efficient in production, it fully corresponded to the principles and aesthetics of functionalism, which are in demand in both domestic and foreign porcelain. In 1930, E. A. Striker created a tea and coffee set for Christian Carstens, which became the direct prototype of the Intourist ^{[6, p. 24]}.

In 1935, at the invitation of N. Y. Danko, S. E. Yakovleva, a young sculptor, came to the factory, whose forms would later become a real "hallmark of the factory." Already in 1936, the Tulip set appeared, continuing the line of organic design, on the one hand, and endowed with classical rigor, on the other. "The achievement of constructivism — a clear and precise structure — was coordinated in the Tulip service with the softness of the shape, which has a multi-petalled structure. The purity of the lines and the geometricity of the round volume received an emotional coloring in the service, and the sculptural integrity and organicity of the form subordinated all the functional elements of its design" ^{[5, p. 262]}. In the late 1930s, the elegant form of the Lotus service appeared, continuing the "floral" line. In 1940, the sculptor developed the "Straight" and "Standard" forms, which are characterized by restraint and simplicity and tend towards functionalism. In the post-war period, she created a Turnip shape oriented to folk traditions (1948-1949) with various grips in the form of cockerels or a blooming flower. The shapes of the Empire (1955) and Leningrad (1950-1953) sets are particularly solemn and representative and perfectly match the strict cobalt painting characteristic of that time. The shape of the coffee set "Russian" (1953) stands out for its elegance of proportions and laconicism.

In the post—war period, new masters began to develop molds - V. L. Semenov, A. A. Leporskaya, E. M. Krimmer. V. L. Semenov, who worked at the factory as a modeler since 1937, in 1949 created the shape of a Bud coffee set with a pear-shaped body and a bud-shaped handle. The visual complexity is distinguished by his set "Lobed" (1952), in which the lower part with relief projections resembling the shape of a "Tulip" is combined with a conical upper one. The spirit of the time was perfectly matched by the vase-cup "On sheaves" (1952) with a leg in the form of three stylized sheaves tied with a ribbon. The form was executed in large and small versions. It was actively used for solemn, ceremonial compositions.

In 1949, E. M. Krimmer began to cooperate with the plant. In 1953-1954, the forms of the Golden Bouquet tea and coffee sets appeared, decorated with a relief image of flowers and ears of corn and plaits. In 1955, he developed the shape of the "Wave" service with a lobed body, characterized by its picturesque and decorative expressiveness. Of the ceremonial vases created by the sculptor, it is necessary to note the monumental Yubileynaya vase, consisting of several parts: the ovoid body of the vase is decorated with a relief belt of oak leaves, ears and stars, and the faceted stem is decorated with stylized sheaves with emblems (sickle and hammer, gear, fruits and others). In addition, E. M. Krimmer is engaged in the creation of shaped vessels that develop the traditions of folk ceramics (Cuman decanter "Firebird", decanter for wine "Merry Samovar", 1954; toilet set "Russian Fairy tales", 1955-1956).

In the 1940s, A. A. Leporskaya began cooperation with the plant ^{[7, pp. 26, 28]}. Her work with the supremacists K. S. Malevich and N. M. Suetin played an important role in her creative development. "The demands on form, the orthogeneity of the slightest relationships... were a truly amazing discovery for me. Working with them gave an understanding of the basic principles of plasticity of any form, of growing it as a living natural element of a flower or plant, an understanding of the magical "little bit" that can either build an amazing harmony of a thing or make it ugly or even destroy it altogether" ^{[8, p. 149]}. In 1945, its "Cone" shape appeared, characterized by simplicity and precision of proportions. The shapes of the Moskovsky (1949) and Bortik (1951) tea sets acquire classical rigor and special precision. With a creative understanding of the natural motif, the sculptor works in the shape of a "Pear" (1953), reproducing it almost literally.

Forms in the "modern style" in porcelain of the second half of the 1950s – 1960s.

Fig. 1. Service "North". 1960. The "Drop" shape by A. A. Leporskaya, painted by L. V. Protopova. URL: https://dzen.ru/a/YnU0nMq69hcg20f5

During the "thaw" period, sculptors actualize the experience of modernist shaping by form and offer minimalistic solutions in a "modern style" that meet the requirements of the time, which does not tolerate "excesses". During this period, each of them develops his own individual creative style in the context of the general stylistic evolution of porcelain forms — from organic design to functionalism. A. A. Leporskaya's forms are distinguished by classical rigor and clarity, immaculacy of proportions, which she combines with softness and smoothness of lines. Her Drop set (1959), created for mass production, is particularly elegant. The service is based on the shape of a slightly elongated falling drop. The details are perfectly found: the slightly expanding outlines of the teapot, coffee pot, the outlines of flower vases, milk jug. The cups contrast with this shape: they are low, wide-open, with a beautifully and comfortably set handle. The whole appearance of the service is exquisitely elegant, lyrical, bright, it exudes peace, special purity" ^{[9, p. 68]}. A. A. Leporskaya's uniform made an impression on her contemporaries and received many favorable reviews in the press. The service was replicated at the factory: for example, in 1964, its planned production was 1,200 sets (TsGA SPb. F. 1181. Op. 27(3). D. 525a. L. 40). At the exhibition "Soviet Russia" (1960), it was presented in 10 painting variants. A. V. Vorobyevsky ("Red Ornaments", 1960), L. I. Grigorieva ("Snowdrop", 1960), S. P. Bogdanova ("Northern", 1960), A. N. Semenova ("Evening", 1960), K. G. Kosenkova ("Red Poppy", 1960) offered their interpretation of the service.). It is perfect for conventional landscapes and flower arrangements in the "modern style", and for "carpet" ornaments in the spirit of folk art. The most restrained and concise painting of the service "North" (1960, vol. 1) by L. V. Protopova can be considered, in which objects are decorated only with small ornamental belts on the handles, spouts, throat and sides. The zeitgeist with its romance of space exploration is felt in the form of "Rocket" (1960), in which A. A. Leporskaya pays tribute to the "streamlined" style popular in foreign design of the 1930s. The Leningrad service (1961, ill. 2) is distinguished by its simplicity, conciseness and modern sound, the form of which won a gold medal at the International Ceramics Exhibition in Prague (1962) (CGA SPb. F. 1181. Op. 27 (3). D. 558. L. 35). Its cup lids, devoid of grips, evoke the Intourist shape in an original way.

Fig. 2. The Leningrad service. 1961. The form of A. A. Leporskaya. The State Russian Museum. URL: https://rusmuseumvrm.ru/data/collections/arts_and_crafts/sf-3335-3347/

In the future, the sculptor's works often gravitate towards functionalist rigor and geometricity, as exemplified by the Neva-2 service (1965). It was created by A. A. Leporskaya "in her characteristic strict Empire forms with a clear and plastic contour. The shape is based on the development of a cylindrical volume, which will later receive a variety of interpretations in its sets, continuing and developing the principles found in the Leningrad service" ^{[9, p. 85]}. On this form, A. A. Leporskaya will create the painting "Golden Agashka" (1965), which pays tribute to the free-brush floral painting of Dulevsky craftsmen who came from the common people, who often bore the name Agafya. In 1965, the sculptor also designed the banquet service "Molodezhny", in the objects of which the motif of the truncated cone, which she turned to in her first service, is played out. The service is distinguished by simplicity and clarity of lines, precision of found proportions and restrained expressiveness. The service was ordered for the Rossiya Hotel and was delivered there in a laconic black-and-gold painting by N. P. Slavina, based on font compositions with the inclusion of ornaments in the style of folk art (Rossiya service, 1966, the State Hermitage Museum).

Figure 3. The ensemble of white vases. The 1960s. The forms of A. A. Leporskaya. Source: Tikhomirova M. Anna Alexandrovna Leporskaya. L.: Artist of the RSFSR, 1979. P. 48.

The "modern style" was very expressive in the new forms of vases (Fig. 3). A. A. Leporskaya's vase forms are often based on reinterpreted natural motifs, such as "Bud" (1956), "Melon" (1958), "Pumpkin" (1958), "Birch" (1960), "Rowan" (1962). A. A. Leporskaya perceived vases as a self—sufficient sculptural form and, When I started painting porcelain on my own, I didn't paint vases at first. As noted by M. A. Tikhomirova, "Leporskaya mastered the art of "vase painting" to the highest degree. And in this area, perhaps more vividly than anywhere else, its main achievement is manifested, when the white form itself, without the help of decoration, already carries the main aesthetic significance, creates a certain image, a certain mood" ^{[9, p. 49]}. At one of the exhibitions, A. A. Leporskaya presented an entire ensemble of vases, arranged in such a way that "the gaps between the vases were perceived as outlines of vases" ^{[9, p. 56]}.

Fig. 4. The service "Birch". The 1960s. The Kupava form and the painting by E. M. Krimmer. A private collection. URL: https://ru.bidspirit.com/

The aesthetics of organic modernism with its attraction to soft, streamlined forms full of inner life and striving for transformation, popular in the decorative and applied art of the "thaw" ^{[1, pp. 125-130]}, found its most consistent embodiment in the works of E. M. Krimmer. The Kupava tea set (1958, fig. 4) is characterized by a pleasant roundness of shapes and a sense of special stability, which is most evident in its low, squat cups. The sculptor's interest in "swollen" forms is noticeable in the solution of the "Sun" service (1961), which is based on a cylinder expanding upward to the shape of an oblate ball. In the Festive set (1962-1963), the narrow throat of objects at the bottom seems to blur into a wide body; small handles and spouts form a single whole with the shape, as if growing out of it. In the author's painting of the service (the State Hermitage Museum), oval multicolored peas are scattered around the body of objects, increasing or decreasing in accordance with the curves of the shapes. Here, analogies are found with experiments with "signaling systems" by the Moscow artist Y. S. Zlotnikov, based on the study of the psychology of perception. At the meeting of the art council of the factory on February 26, 1963, the chief artist Z. O. Kulbach noted the versatility of the new set set by E. M. Krimmer: "The set is designed for housewarming, for a family that is re-creating its own household, which cannot immediately buy both a dining and tea sets. These items can be used to cover an evening, dining, and tea table.… There is also an oil pan, a salad bowl and bowls that can serve as a sugar bowl, a herring bowl..." (TSGA SPb. F. 1181. Op. 27 (3). D. 526a. L. 26). At the International Ceramics Exhibition in Prague (1962), the service won a silver medal (Ibid. 558. 35). The experience of mastering the traditions of folk art can be read in the set of dishes "Kolobok" (1964, Penza Regional Art Gallery) with its rounded shapes, reliable and sturdy, which refer to its fabulous prototype. The transition from organic design to functionalism, characteristic of the second half of the 1960s, can be traced in the simple and restrained Horizon set with original hook-shaped handles and loop-shaped handles extending downwards.

E. M. Krimmer's teapot is an object of special author's attention. In 1962, he created a set of "Day and Night" teapots with squat, "swollen" shapes. Different in size and contrasting in color (white teapot and black with dolivnaya painting), they are placed on top of each other, in the traditions of Russian folk ceramics. A set of teapots "Three Friends" (1960's, the State Russian Museum) with their characteristic fusion of the main volume and protruding elements - handles and spouts can be considered a conceptual project ^{[10, p. 72]}. The spout of one of the kettles is placed on the side, which gives the set a special vividness and is perceived as an element of the design game.

Fig. 5. Wall vase "Basket". 1960's. The form and painting by E. M. Krimmer. A private collection. URL: https://dzen.ru/a/ZRalC8yqqyxNmWQK

Among the vases created by E. M. Krimmer, "Olvia" (1961) is particularly interesting, resembling some ancient Greek amphorae. The connection with the ancient heritage is emphasized by the paintings of N. P. Slavina (vases "Black and Green", 1963 and "Green Ornament", 1960, the State Hermitage Museum), interpreting the classical ornament of the meander. For small commemorative items, he suggests the "Sovereign" shape in the form of an elongated, expanding foot, playing on the contrast of a narrow bottom and a wide bell-shaped throat, which perfectly fits into its time. The author performed the compositions "Dove of Peace" (1960's) and "Peace of the Earth" (1964, State Hermitage Museum) on it. In addition, the sculptor designed the original shapes of the wall vases "Basket" (1960, fig. 5) and "Dawn" (1960), which are characterized by slight asymmetry and picturesqueness.

Fig. 6. The service "My city". 1962. The "Ellipse" shape by V. L. Semenov, the composition by A. N. Semenova. Museum of Original Porcelain and Chess, St. Petersburg

The tendencies of organic modernism are manifested in a peculiar way in the works of V. L. Semenov. His works are characterized by a greater contrast of elements and expression, a sense of intense inner life. In 1958, he created a stylish and dynamic Ellipse set: the body of three—dimensional objects is designed in the form of an ellipsoid that expands upward from two sides, and flat objects tend to form an ellipse instead of the usual round one (Fig. 6). In the author's painting of this form, the Movement service (1960, the State Hermitage Museum) — The artist uses the motif of an open spiral, which enhances the dynamics inherent in it. The Ellipse shape was often used for exhibition compositions: for example, at the International Ceramics Exhibition in Ostend (1959), decorative murals "Spring Shadows" (1959) by N. P. Slavina and "Contrast" (1959) by N. M. Pavlova could be seen on it. The planned release of the service in 1963 amounted to 2000 sets (Archive library OMIFZ. 24.4.1. L. 60).

The shape of the service "Morning" (1959) is very elegant with its oblique cut of the throat and a sharp triangular handle. The author's painting of the service, "The Colored Plait" (1959), based on an alternation of multicolored triangular and teardrop—shaped figures turning into thin divergent lines, is distinguished by lightness and elegance and emphasizes the proximity of the form solution to the international Art Deco style. The planned production of the service at the factory in 1964 was 2,450 sets (TsGA SPb. F. 1181. Op. 27(3). D. 525a. L. 47). The Evening service (1961) varies the motifs used by the sculptor earlier. The service forms of V. L. Semenov in the second half of the 1960s are becoming more cozy and intimate, and the influence of folk art is beginning to be read in them. These are the sets "Rus" (1965) and "Chugunok" (1967).

Il 7. Vase "Crystal". 1956. The form and painting by V. L. Semenov. A private collection. URL: https://www.monetnik.ru/antikvariat/interier/vazy/vaza-kristall-avtor-v-l-533585/

The symbol of the "modern style" was the vase by V. L. Semenov "Crystal" (1956, vol. 8), which won the Grand Prix at the World Exhibition in Brussels (1958). The prototype of the form could be the glass vases of Paolo Venini ^{[1, p. 125]} and Alvar Aalto. By contemporaries, "its undulating organic form was perceived as an absolute innovation among the classical vase forms" ^{[2, p. 69]}. The matte black cover of the Crystal vase contrasts particularly effectively with the glossy inner surface, resulting in an original artistic image. The vase invariably received high marks in the Soviet press and at meetings of art councils and was produced by the plant in significant editions. In 1963, the plant produced 10,000 Kristall vases (TsGA SPb. F. 1181. Op. 27(3). 526a. L. 85), and the following year it was decided to increase its production to 15,000 copies (Ibid. 525a. L. 51).

The second vase, which won the Grand Prix in Brussels, "Marine" (shaped like "Citrus", 1956), is like a slightly opened shell. The shapes of the Luch (1959) and Polar (1960) vases are particularly bold and dynamic. In the early 1960s, "the inner life in the works of V. L. Semenov is activated, the feeling of internal tension, ready to break out, is achieved in the most ingenious ways, first of all by creating some inconsistency between form and decor, which is at first not caught by the eye, as well as by introducing a strong contrast between different elements of a structurally unified form" ^{[1, pp. 126-127]}. An example of this is the Ladoga vase (1962), in which a wide body is contrasted with an elongated narrow throat. The author's painting of the Silver vase (1963, State Hermitage Museum), made with shiny glaze on a matte sponge cake in the form of a spiral, refers to the supremacist "white on white".

The works of S. E. Yakovleva, the most experienced sculptor in form, were transformed in the 1950s and 1960s in accordance with the requirements of the "modern style", acquiring greater conciseness and simplicity. In the solution of the "New" service (1961), she tends to emphasize the geometricity and some contrast of the shape, based on a combination of a cylinder and a cone. In the author's painting of the service, "With yellow lids" (1961, State Hermitage Museum), S. E. Yakovleva accentuates only the lid (light yellow), handles and grips of objects (black) by means of monochrome covering, leaving the rest of the surface white. Such minimalistic decor perfectly corresponded to the "thaw" aesthetics. The painting of N. P. Slavina's "City under the Sun" service (1963, State Hermitage Museum) highlights the design features of the shape: tiered houses with colorful triangular roofs echo her sharp grip.

Il. 8. Severny service. 1960's. The Moscow uniform by S. E. Yakovleva, painted by N. M. Pavlova. A private collection. URL: https://www.monetnik.ru/antikvariat/kuhnya/posuda/servizy/chaynye/serviz-severnyj-na-6-497436/

S. E. Yakovleva pays tribute to organic modernism in the form of the Moscow service (1961-1962, vol. 8), designed in the form of an onion elongated to the base. These associations are reinforced by a lid with a narrow cylindrical grip, similar to the top of an onion head. The service is characterized by smoothness, streamlining, and a sense of inner life — calm and natural. The author's painting of the service is made in the form of thin vertical stripes of dark cobalt that cover the bodies and lids of objects. At the Second International Ceramics Exhibition in Prague (1962), the service received a silver medal (CGA SPb. F. 1181. Op. 27(3). D. 558. L. 35). The service was replicated: for example, in 1964, its planned output was 2000 sets (Ibid., 525a, l. 41). Among the vase forms created by S. E. Yakovleva, the current trends of the "modern style" are reflected in the vases "Slender" (circa 1960), "Oval" (1961), "Square" (1962), etc.

The original innovative character, creative freedom, and spectacular contrasts are characteristic of I. S. Aquilonova's works of the 1960s (vases, bowls, decanters). She boldly juxtaposes various elements: for example, in the shape of a vase-bottle, the smooth outlines of the body are combined with a cylindrical, geometrically clear throat. Unlike her colleagues, I. S. Aquilonova clearly separates one element of the form from another, thereby enhancing its visual originality. The author's forms are complemented by paintings stylistically similar to children's drawings or abstract compositions in the spirit of Joan Miro.

At the beginning of the decade, V. M. Gorodetsky turned to creating new forms, preferring vases. One of the first such works, the vase "Earth" ("Round") (1962), is close to the shape of the vase "Ladoga" by V. L. Semenov, but the contrast between its parts seems less sharp. In the shape of the Novaya vase (1962), the spindle-shaped body smoothly transforms into a cylindrical throat. He offers a similar interpretation in the vase "High" (1962), but here the throat is narrower and elongated. The author's forms were used by the artist to create landscape and decorative compositions. For example, he made a whole series of abstract landscapes on the "Round" shape, conveying impressions of a particular state of nature (vases "Spring", "Earth", "Thaw", 1962, the State Hermitage Museum). His very spectacular vase "Twilight" (1962, "New" form, All-Russian Museum of Decorative, Applied and Folk Art): The black paint seems to spread freely over the porcelain surface, just as twilight gradually displaces daylight. This solution of the vase brings it closer to the "thaw" ceramics, which actively used the expressive effects of dripping glazes. The forms created by V. M. Gorodetsky in the second half of the 1960s acquire greater clarity and rigor of divisions.

A number of molds for the Lomonosov Leningrad Porcelain Factory were designed by I. P. Kulagin. In 1957, his vase appeared "Flat" with an oval body, with side walls expanding upward. Such a flattened shape anticipated the "Ellipse" shape and corresponded to the idea of saving living space, relevant for its time. In 1956, he developed a stylish ashtray shape, triangular in plan, with convex walls at the corners, curving towards the center. It was replicated by the factory and was in demand. In addition, the sculptor experimented with the shapes of figurative vessels. In 1959, he created a "Marine Set" that includes a decorative fish vessel, a starfish-shaped breadcrumb, and vases with jagged edges imitating corals or jellyfish. His painting was done by V. M. Gorodetsky (State Russian Museum). The soft, restrained color of the underglaze painting (brown, green, black, gray, blue), the use of abstract spots and stylized images of starfish perfectly emphasize the original shapes and help convey the image of the seabed. Not so successful is the water appliance "Piglet" (1960, Ulyanovsk Regional Art Museum) with a vessel in the form of a stylized pig, with a piglet lid and a funny curved tail handle, and small cups.

"Thaw" shapes and modern author's porcelain

In modern St. Petersburg porcelain, the dialogue with the cultural heritage of the "thaw" is carried out on two levels. The first is the use of forms from this period to create original compositions. The "Small Round" shape by V. M. Gorodetsky is popular with the artists of JSC Imperial Porcelain Factory. In particular, V. V. Bakastova refers to her in the Focus series of vases with her characteristic abstract decorative drawings made in cobalt and glaze. N. E. Troitskaya uses this form for color-saturated polychrome underglaze painting with floral (Havva vase, 2017) and zoomorphic motifs (Tenderness vases" and "Solo", 2017, all — Heritage Foundation) ^{[11, pp. 131, 135]}. In addition, V. M. Gorodetsky's "New" and "High" forms are also used for murals (V. V. Bakastova, composition "Rain", 2020, Heritage Foundation, vol. 9.1). Other popular forms include the "Cylindrical" (1963) by A. A. Leporskoy (M. E. Matveeva, vase "Free Movement", 2012, Heritage Foundation, vol. 9.3).

Fig. 9. Exhibits of the exhibition "Decorative minimalism. "Thaw in Soviet Porcelain" (2020, State Hermitage Museum): 1. The composition "Rain". 2020. The shape of the vase is "High" by V. M. Gorodetsky, painted by V. V. Bakastova; 2. Composition "Flow". 2020. Form and painting by Y. L. Zhukova; 3. Vase "Free movement". 2020. Cylindrical shape by A. A. Leporskaya, painted by M. E. Matveeva; 4. Vase "Experiment". 2020. The "Evening Flower" form by E. V. Sazonova, painted by M. E. Matveeva; 5. The "Olive" service. 2019. The uniform of N. E. Troitskaya; 6. Dishes "Petrogradskaya side" and "Softly and tenderly". 2019. Painted by N. E. Troitskaya. Heritage Foundation of Imperial Porcelain Factory JSC; 7. Jubilee vase. 1967. The form and painting of E. M. Krimmer. The State Hermitage Museum. URL: https://arthive.com/ru/exhibitions/5309#show-media://photo/7499753

The second level of dialogue is the continuation of the traditions of shaping, laid down during the "thaw" period. Dynamics and a sense of inner life are distinguished by E. V. Sazonova's "Morning Flower" forms ^{[12, p. 34]} and "Evening Flower" (2008, ill. 9.3), which correspond to the "flattened" form "Ellipse" by V. L. Semenov. The attraction to smooth, concise forms inspired by natural motifs, characteristic of the "modern style", will be developed in the forms of D. D. Filippenko's vases "Bud", "Lily", "Freesia" ^{[12, p. 84]}. The vertical aspiration of V. M. Gorodetsky's "High" form will be enhanced in the elegant form of N. E. Troitskaya's "Papyrus" ^{[12, p. 149]}. Her Olive set (2019, fig. 9.5) combines functional laconism and smooth melodious lines, corresponding with the forms of A. A. Leporskaya. The set is made of bone china, the recipe of which was developed at the Lomonosov Leningrad Porcelain Factory in the second half of the 1960s. It summed up a peculiar result of technological searches of the "thaw" in the field of high quality and beauty of porcelain as a material. The I. O. Frolov "Eva" set (2020) with its smooth forms full of organic life, close to the "thaw" aesthetics, is also made of bone china. The name of the service refers to the work of E. A. Striker (Zeisel), whose calling card in the mature period will be streamlined forms with restrained rigor and at the same time sensuality. In addition, the author's search echoes the developments of the German company Rosenthal (Raymond Lowy's "Studio line" set, circa 1954, Brooklyn Museum) ^[13].

Conclusion

The period of the "thaw" became a time of active experiments with new forms in Leningrad porcelain. It was prepared by the creation of forms in the 1920s and 1930s, in which the ideas of suprematism and functionalism gained special importance. The sculptors, most of whom began working on forms at the Lomonosov Leningrad Porcelain Factory in the late 1940s, also mastered the experience of creating classically rigorous and representative forms typical of the post-war period. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, porcelain was dominated by the aesthetics of organic design, giving the shapes a smoothness and a sense of inner life. In the second half of the 1960s, functionalist rigor and clarity of forms prevailed. At the same time, the traditions of folk art are of great importance for porcelain, which can be read both in figured vessels and in the solution of service products. Each of the sculptors develops his own individual style within the framework of general trends. The forms of A. A. Leporskaya are distinguished by rigor, immaculacy of proportions and special purity of lines. E. M. Krimmer's works are characterized by an interest in "swollen" shapes, soft roundness, and the fusion of the main volume and protruding elements. V. L. Semenov's forms stand out for their dynamics and attraction to contrasts. V. M. Gorodetsky's works are distinguished by their simplicity and integrity. The innovative nature and originality of plastic solutions are inherent in the forms of I. S. Aquilonova and I. P. Kulagin. The shapes of vases and sets created by sculptors regularly received awards at international exhibitions and favorable reviews in the press. They were produced by the factory and were actively used by artists for murals in the "modern style". The aesthetic trends developed by the sculptors of the LFZ were also in demand at other enterprises. For example, the desire to create "swollen", streamlined shapes can be read in the products of the Riga Porcelain and Faience Factory (the Sakta set by Zinaida Welste, 1960s; the Stella set by Beatrice Carcini, 1960s). Stylish sharp-angled handles, reminiscent of the "Morning" shape, can be found in the products of the Baranovsky and Gorodnitsky porcelain factories of the 1960s ^[14].

Modern porcelain artists use a number of "thaw" shapes for their paintings. In addition, the principles of shaping the period of the "second modernism" — smoothness and laconism, perfection of proportions, appeal to natural motifs, dynamics and a sense of inner life — remain relevant for porcelain of the 21st century.