Characteristics of socio-psychological adaptation of adolescents subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence

Venckute Marina Sergeevna Senior Lecturer, Department of Psychology, Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov  163002, Russia, Arkhangelsk region, Arkhangelsk, Leningradsky ave., 40, office 301 venckute@bk.ru Other publications by this author     Korneeva Yana Aleksandrovna ORCID: 0000-0001-9118-9539 PhD in Psychology Associate professor, Department of Psychology, Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after MV Lomonosov 163002, Russia, Arkhangel'skaya oblast', g. Arkhangel'sk, ul. Nab. Severnoi, 17 amazonkca@mail.ru Other publications by this author

Shakhova Lyudmila Ivanovna ORCID: 0000-0003-1990-6825 PhD in Psychology Associate professor, Department of Psychology, Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov 163002, Russia, Arkhangel'skaya Oblast' oblast', g. Arkhangel'sk, nab. Severnoi Dviny, 17 79600001472@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

Introduction

 The task of any society is to educate the younger generation, ready to share social norms, perform socially oriented activities, solve socially significant tasks. To do this, it is necessary to create conditions for the socialization of children and adolescents. Adaptability is understood as the presence of individual characteristics that allow a person to resolve problematic situations most quickly and adequately, normalizing their interaction with the environment ^[1]. However, children and adolescents may be affected by factors that complicate social adaptation: negative self-attitude ^[2], family problems, difficult life situation, alienation from the reference group, experiencing depression and loneliness ^[3], etc. These factors may increase the risk of maladaptation associated with addiction, delinquent and suicidal behavior ^[4].

Maladaptation is the result of internal or external, often complex disharmonization of the interaction of a person with another individual and society as a whole, which manifests itself in internal discomfort, violations of activity, behavior and relationships of a person with other people ^[5]. Complementing the classification of S.A. Belicheva ^[6], T.D. Molodtsova identifies the following types of maladaptation: pathogenic, psychological, psychosocial, socio-psychological (or socio-pedagogical) and social ^[5]. At the same time, according to the author, pathogenic maladaptation occurs as a consequence of disorders of the nervous system and human sensory organs. Psychological maladaptation can occur covertly, not manifesting itself in behavior, but is accompanied by internal conflicts, loss of value orientations, violation of the social orientation of the individual, inadequate self-esteem, frustration ^[5]. With unfavorable factors, as well as in the absence of psychological assistance to a teenager, this type of maladaptation can progress and lead to illegal and antisocial actions ^[5]. Psychosocial maladaptation is considered as a result of gender and age changes, character accentuations, etc. Socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents is associated with impaired functioning in society, this also includes socio-pedagogical adaptation, which emphasizes the belonging of adolescents to a certain pedagogical space in which they reside due to age, carrying out their activities. Socio-psychological maladaptation can manifest itself: aggression ^[7], hopelessness, loneliness, depression ^[8]. In such adolescents, interpersonal relationships with peers and adults are disrupted, acceptance of themselves and others decreases, and they can also confront others, show aggression, violate the norms of morality and morality, lose social ties with family and school ^[9].

One of the most significant factors of a teenager's maladaptation is exposure to various types of violence. Traditionally, among the types of violence against children are: physical, sexual, psychological, emotional, economic. Modern research additionally highlights spiritual, informational and religious violence and neglect of the needs of the child. The most common form of violence is psychological, which involves threats to the well-being of the child, his humiliation, excessive criticism, prohibitions, negative assessments. This type of violence is latent, because many perceive this attitude of others as the norm.

One of the types of psychological violence is emotional violence, involving separation from normal social communication; despondency, refusal to discuss the problem; prohibitions; constant insults; maintaining constant tension, intimidation, threats; insults, bullying, capable of forming a stable sense of fear; intimidation by punishment: moral decay, involvement and coercion of the child to actions contrary to social standards and causing damage ^{[10, 11]}. Emotional violence is often considered as part of psychological violence, however, according to a number of studies, these types of violence have different content and have different consequences for the psyche ^{[12, 13]}. Emotional abuse of a person is any action that causes a person to have a state of emotional tension ^{[12, 13]}. Psychological violence is an act committed against an individual that hinders his development and realization of personal potential ^{[12, 13]}. Physical violence is the intentional infliction of physical harm or injury, leading to deterioration of physical and/or mental health and development or death ^[14].

In the study of E.M. Zakharova, A.A. Nuzhdina, the interrelationships of family violence with a violation of the social adaptation of schoolchildren were noted ^[15]. In the work of T.A. Nauchenko, it was established that physical violence can be one of the causes of deviant behavior of a minor ^[14].  However, scientific research on the relationship between violence against a teenager and the characteristics of his maladaptation has not been carried out enough.

The problem of prevention of violence against minors is relevant and continues to be relevant at the present time. According to a study by D. Finkelhor, 1.4 million children and adolescents annually seek medical help in connection with violence, two thirds of which are teenagers ^[16].

According to the Prosecutor General's Office of the Russian Federation, there was a 44% increase in the number of sexual crimes against children (from 9524 in 2010 to 16887 in 2021), while more than 50% of such crimes are committed by a person familiar to the child, one in five are family members, 11% are parents (legal representatives), 25% sexual abuse is committed by persons under the influence of alcohol and persons suffering from mental illness ^[17]. At the same time, according to the results of a VTsIOM survey conducted in 2022, 62% of parents surveyed use instructions and moralizing in education, 20% use corporal punishment (slaps, clicks, slaps on the back of the head), 21% - punishment with a belt ^[18]. According to the UN State of the World Report on the Prevention of Violence against Children for 2020, approximately every second child in the world is subjected to physical and/or psychological violence every year ^[19]. The UNESCO report for 2019 indicates that a third of students aged 11 to 15 have been subjected to peer violence at school at least once in the last month ^[20].

According to statistics for 2021 increased by 6.3% (2,098; 2020 – 1,973) the number of teenagers in respect of whom protocols on administrative offenses related to drug use without medical appointment have been drawn up.  Of the total number of minors who committed crimes, established by law enforcement agencies for all compositions in 2021, 3.3% of adolescents were drug users, 83 minors committed crimes under the influence of drugs ^[21].

Chairman of the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation Alexander Bastrykin noted an increase in child crime, so in 2022 the number of serious and especially serious crimes committed by minors increased (total — 9295; another 3,000 were not included in the statistics, since the criminals did not reach the age of criminal responsibility). In 2023, the trend continued ^[22]. Every fortieth crime by minors or with their complicity according to statistics of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation for the first half of 2023 ^[23]

These statistics prove the relevance of the study: adolescents continue to become victims of violence, which contributes to their maladaptation, which can lead to their violation of the law, the commission of crimes or the development of addictions. In domestic and foreign studies, individual characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents who were subjected to violence were studied: depression ^[24-26], suicidal thoughts and suicidal behavior ^{[27, 28]}, self-destructive behavior ^[29], suicide risk ^[30], deviant ^[31] and delinquent ^[32] behavior, self-esteem ^{[33, 34]}. In this connection, a comprehensive study of the characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have been subjected to various types of violence is relevant.

The subject of the study is the characteristics of socio–psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have been subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence.

The aim is to identify and describe the features of the severity of the characteristics of socio–psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have been subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence.

Hypothesis: we assume that there are features of the severity of the characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have been subjected to various types of violence. A greater severity of the characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation is expected in adolescents who have experienced physical violence.

Theoretical and methodological basis of the study: approaches to the definition and types of maladjustment in psychology by I. A. Baeva, S.A. Belicheva, T.D. Molodtsova, D.A. Dubrovina, O.A. Ulyanina; approaches to the definition, factors and types of violence against minors by T.L. Shabanova, D.M. Daudova, T.A. Neobachenko, E.M. Zakharova, A.A. Nuzhdina, T.A. Yushchenko.

The scientific novelty of the study consists in a comprehensive assessment of the characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have been subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence, including a tendency to deviant and addictive behavior, suicidal risk, depression, psychological well-being and self-attitude; identification of common and special characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have experienced various types of violence.

Materials and methods of research

The study involved 159 schoolchildren (88 boys and 71 girls) aged 12 to 15 years (average age 13.7 ± 0.102 years) who study in grades 6-8 of general education institutions of the city of Arkhangelsk: 30.8% of them aged 12 years, 34% - aged 13 years, 20.1% - in at the age of 14 and 15.1% - at the age of 15. All participants took part on a voluntary basis and parents' consent was obtained to conduct psychological diagnostics of students, the methods were filled out anonymously. The study was coordinated with the management of the relevant educational organizations and was conducted at the request of the Commission on Juvenile Affairs and Protection of their Rights in Arkhangelsk.

The diagnosis of susceptibility to various types of violence was carried out by means of a questionnaire. The developed questionnaire included sections: what types of violence were they subjected to (psychological, emotional, economic, physical, etc.), how often they were subjected, from whom the violence came, what feelings they experienced, whether they observed violence against others. Before the survey, an explanation of all types of violence was carried out and information was collected regarding the awareness of students about different types of violence.

Methods of psychological testing to assess the characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of students:

1) the method of diagnosing the tendency to deviant behavior (hereinafter SOP-M), (A.L. Orel) ^[35].

2) The technique of "Addiction to addictive behavior" (V.D. Mendelevich) ^[36].

3)     Questionnaire of adolescent depression (A.T. Beck in adaptation by N.V. Tarabrina) ^{[37, 38]}.

4)     Suicide risk questionnaire (A.G. Shmelev) ^[39].

5) The methodology of "Self-attitude questionnaire" (V.V. Stolin, S.R. Panteleev) ^[40].

6) The scale of subjective well-being (Perrudet-Badoux, Mendelsohn, Chiche. In the adaptation of Sokolov M.V.) ^[41].

The rationale for choosing the characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents exposed to various types of violence is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Correlation of the characteristics of the socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have been subjected to violence with the research of authors engaged in the study of this topic

Mathematical data processing was carried out using the IBM SPSS Statistics 26.00 statistical package using the following methods: descriptive statistics, multidimensional MANOVA analysis of variance (to determine statistically significant differences in the severity of the tendency to deviant, addictive behavior, suicidal risk, psychological well-being and self-attitude in adolescents who have been subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence).

Research results

According to the results of the analysis of the responses of adolescents to the questionnaire, the majority of adolescents (23%) were subjected to psychological violence, 18.2% - physical violence, 14.5% - emotional and 2.4% - economic violence. For further analysis, groups of adolescents who were subjected to physical, psychological and emotional violence were selected, as well as a group of adolescents who were not subjected to violence by others.

Fig. 1 Exposure to various types of violence of the surveyed adolescents (% of the total sample)

To determine the features of the severity of various characteristics of socio-psychological maladjustment of adolescents who have been subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence, multidimensional analysis of variance was applied, where as a fixed factor was the attribution to the group of those subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence, and the dependent parameters of the methods: suicide risk questionnaire (A.G. Shmelev), questionnaire of adolescent depression (A. Beck), the method of diagnosing the tendency to deviant behavior (A.L. Orel)., the method of addiction to addictive behavior (V.D. Mendelevich), the scale of subjective well-being in the adaptation of M.V. Sokolova, the self-attitude test questionnaire (V.V. Stolin, S.R. Panteleev). The results of multidimensional tests are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Results of multidimensional methods for assessing differences in indicators of maladaptation of adolescents who have been subjected to various types of violence

According to the data of multidimensional tests, there are statistically significant differences in the parameters of the methods: the questionnaire of suicidal risk (A.G. Shmelev), the questionnaire of adolescent depression (A. Beck), the method of diagnosing the tendency to deviant behavior (A.N. Orel)., the method of addiction to addictive behavior (V.D. Mendelevich), the scale of subjective well-being in the adaptation of M.V. Sokolova, self-attitude test questionnaire (V.V. Stolin, S.R. Panteleev).

Tables 3 and 4 present the characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation, according to which statistically significant differences were obtained in adolescents who were subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence. According to the data of one-dimensional tests, differences in the severity of the tendency to deviant, addictive behavior, suicidal risk, psychological well-being and self-attitude in adolescents who have and have not been subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence are observed according to the characteristics presented in Table 3.

Table 3 – Characteristics of suicidal risk, depression and deviant behavior of adolescents who have and have not been subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence (according to the data of one-dimensional tests, M ± SD)

Speaking about the characteristics of the propensity to suicidal risk, it should be noted that adolescents who have been subjected to psychological and emotional violence are more prone to affectivity. For such adolescents, when assessing a traumatic situation, a willingness to respond to it emotionally is characteristic. In addition, in the extreme case, an affective blockade of the intellect is possible.

Adolescents who have experienced psychological and emotional abuse are more prone to social pessimism. Minors are characterized by a negative concept of the outside world, tend to perceive the surrounding world as hostile and dangerous.

Adolescents who have been subjected to psychological violence have a greater degree of insolvency, which means awareness of their own uselessness, incompetence and "disconnection" from the world. Such teenagers are also characterized by the predominance of ideas about their own physical, moral and intellectual insolvency.

Minors who have been emotionally abused are characterized by a more pronounced infantile maximalism of value attitudes. Teenagers tend to maximize the value of the slightest loss, while the value of significant achievements is minimized.

Adolescents who have been physically abused have a more pronounced tendency to be demonstrative. Such teenagers are more willing to draw attention to their misfortunes, seek sympathy and understanding from others. Such demonstrative behavior of a suicidal nature can be experienced from the inside as a "cry for help".

Adolescents who have been physically abused are more inclined to search for cultural values and norms that can justify suicidal behavior, erecting suicide into a cult, as well as borrowing models of suicidal behavior from films and literature.

Minors who have experienced physical violence are more incapable of constructive planning for the future, which may be a consequence of deep immersion in a traumatic situation. The feeling of the unsolvability of the problem can transform into a global fear of failure in the future.

Victims of physical violence have lower rates relative to the antisuicidal factor, expressed through a deep understanding of the sense of responsibility for loved ones, a sense of duty, the idea of the sinfulness of suicide, fear of pain and physical suffering. These differences allow us to conclude that victims of physical violence are more likely to have suicidal thoughts, consider suicide a more acceptable form of behavior.

The level of depression is higher in adolescents who have been subjected to psychological violence. These results can be explained by the fact that this type of violence is most latent and can be of a prolonged nature. In addition, adolescents who have become victims of psychological violence may not realize for a long time that they are being negatively affected, which leads to psychological suffering of the child and deep depression. 

Regarding the characteristics of deviant behavior, it should be noted that adolescents who have been subjected to emotional and physical violence are more likely to overcome and deny generally accepted norms and patterns of behavior. Minors are characterized by non-conformist attitudes, a tendency to contrast their own norms and values with group ones. In addition, such teenagers tend to look for difficulties themselves that could be overcome.

            Adolescents who have been emotionally and physically abused are prone to self-harming and self-destructive behavior. The autoaggressive behavior of such adolescents can take different forms, such as the need for thrills, sadomasochistic tendencies.

            Minors who have become victims of emotional and physical violence are characterized by a tendency to aggression and violence. Moreover, adolescents who have been subjected to physical violence are most prone to aggressive behavior and violent actions against others. Adolescents of these groups are characterized by the presence of aggressive tendencies in behavior, aggressive orientation in relationships with others, tend to solve problems through violence, and also use the humiliation of another as a means of stabilizing their own self-esteem.

Minors who have become victims of emotional and psychological violence are characterized by a high willingness to implement delinquent behavior and, as a result, a low level of social control.

The tendency to addictive behavior is more characteristic of survivors of physical violence. Teenagers who have become victims of physical violence are more predisposed to escape from reality by changing their mental state, using psychoactive substances.

Table 4 – Characteristics of subjective well-being and self-attitude of adolescents who have and have not been subjected to psychological, emotional and physical violence (according to the data of one-dimensional tests, M ± SD)

Regarding the level of subjective well-being of adolescents, it should be noted that adolescents who have been subjected to psychological violence are characterized by the highest level of subjective distress. Adolescents who have experienced psychological violence are more likely to show signs accompanying psychiatric symptoms, such as depression, drowsiness, absent-mindedness, etc. For such adolescents, the social environment is more significant, which may indicate a strong feeling of loneliness, a pronounced need to seek help from others, and the inability to solve their problems independently. In addition, adolescents who have experienced psychological violence are more dissatisfied with everyday life, which can be expressed in a lack of interest in what is happening, difficulties in learning activities. These results allow us to conclude about the negative impact of the consequences of psychological violence on the social behavior of adolescents.

According to the results obtained, adolescents who have become victims of the studied types of violence are characterized by more frequent mood changes and reduced self-esteem of health. Teenagers who have been subjected to violence feel depressed, pessimistic about the future. In addition, adolescents who have been subjected to violence feel tired and assess their state of health as unsatisfactory. The results obtained allow us to conclude about the adverse effects of violence on both the emotional state of minors and physical well-being.

According to the data obtained, statistically significant differences in the severity of tension and sensitivity were found in adolescents who were and were not physically abused. Teenagers who have not experienced physical violence feel great tension and sensitivity. These results can be explained by a number of reasons, on the one hand, adolescents who have been physically abused are more likely to show aggression, i.e. actively express their dissatisfaction with the situation, and thus can reduce the level of tension, on the other hand, the very moment of examination could cause a situation of tension, and schoolchildren who have been physically abused previously, they could have had experience in psychological diagnostics, and be more ready for it.

Regarding the characteristics of self-attitude, according to the analysis, it can be noted that lower levels of openness, self-confidence and self-guidance are characteristic of adolescents who have been subjected to psychological and physical violence. These students are characterized by pronounced defensive behavior, lack of reflection skills, as well as unwillingness to reveal themselves. Minors are characterized by insecurity, motivation to avoid failure, and self-doubt. In addition, adolescents who have been subjected to these types of violence have weakened self-regulation mechanisms, and volitional control is insufficient to overcome obstacles on the way to achieving the goal.

A higher level of self-acceptance is characteristic of adolescents who have experienced emotional violence and have not experienced physical violence. This may indicate that physical violence has a greater negative impact than emotional.

 Internal conflict is more pronounced in adolescents who have experienced emotional violence (its level in this group of schoolchildren is the highest compared to other groups), and is characterized by the presence of internal doubts, feelings of guilt, which may be due to reduced self-esteem. This is consistent with the results of other methods, with the help of which a greater tendency to self-injuring, self-destructive and delinquent behavior has been established in schoolchildren who have experienced emotional abuse.

At the same time, adolescents who have experienced physical violence tend to have a reduced level of internal conflict, which can be expressed in denial of problems and closeness.

            Self-worth, characterized by a sense of self-worth, is less pronounced in adolescents who have experienced physical violence. These students are characterized by self-doubt, reduced ability to resist environmental phenomena, increased sensitivity to comments and criticism, which can make them touchy and vulnerable.

            Thus, the hypothesis of the study that there are features of the severity of the characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have been subjected to various types of violence has been confirmed; the greater severity of the characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation is expected in adolescents who have experienced physical violence has been partially confirmed. Schoolchildren who have been subjected to emotional and physical violence are more prone to overcoming norms and rules, to self-harming and self-destructive behavior, to aggression and violence, to delinquent behavior. At the same time, these types of deviant behavior are more common in adolescents who have experienced physical violence, and they are also characterized by a tendency to addictive behavior.

Discussion of the results

The comparative analysis made it possible to determine the characteristics of the socio-psychological maladaptation of minors who have been subjected to psychological violence, which include a more pronounced insolvency. In a study by E.N. Volkova and co-authors, it is noted that adolescents who have experienced psychological violence have a deformation of the child's "I" image ^[53]. The image of the "I" loses its complexity and differentiation, becomes vague and blurred. It is noted that children who have experienced violence feel the loss of their own value, and they also have a narrowing and restriction of knowledge of the world and the development of ideas about themselves, as a result of which it is difficult for a child to achieve success and respect for others ^[53]. S.Yu. Manukhina notes that the experience of violence is associated with violations of ideas about self-efficacy: a person who has suffered violence experiences a loss of faith in his own effectiveness, which may affect the idea of his abilities to carry out a particular activity ^[54]. Exposure to violence in childhood has a detrimental effect on the mental health and well-being of young people ^[55].

In this study, it was found that adolescents who have been subjected to psychological violence are characterized by a greater severity of depression than those who have not been subjected to violence. This result is also confirmed in other studies. S.L. McNeil and co-authors found that various types of violent actions predict an increase in depressive symptoms due to an increase in problems in relationships with peers ^[26]. V. Nanni and co-authors report that people who have been subjected to abuse are twice as likely to develop as repetitive as well as persistent depressive episodes than in persons who had no history of abuse in childhood ^[24]. L.I. Dementi presents the results that the level of depression is higher in adolescents who have been subjected to domestic violence ^[25].  In a study by J. Wang and co-authors ^[56], it was found that adolescents with depression who experienced violence in the past showed a higher level of suicidal thoughts than those who did not experience it. These results emphasize the importance of identifying and taking into account past cases of violence in the treatment of adolescents with depression to reduce the risk of suicide ^[56]. Other studies have also proved that violence is a risk factor for suicidal thoughts or suicidal behavior among young people ^{[27, 28]}.

The study by H.L. Schacter and J. Juvonen studied the conditions under which symptoms of depression predict social vulnerability, and presented the mechanism underlying such connections. The authors have established a link between the symptoms of depression of 6th grade students and an increase in their victimization in 7th grade, that is, symptoms of depression increase a teenager's risk of future victimization ^[57].

S.Yu. Manukhina notes that the problem of adolescent violence is topical and complex. A very large number of facts of violence are not recorded in official sources. At the same time, it is often very difficult for teenagers themselves to immediately understand what happened to them. Many teenagers conceal their problems, which can be expressed in a conscious desire to show their best side, especially in a survey situation ^[54].

Minors who have been physically abused are more likely to have suicidal thoughts and mood changes. Similar conclusions are drawn by T.I. Menshikova, who notes that adolescents who have been physically abused demonstrate a higher level of anxiety and outward-directed anger, as well as a lower sense of self-efficacy ^[59]. K.M. Kitzmann and co-authors note problems with emotional regulation, including self-destructive behavior of minors, which can be indicators of traumatic events in the family ^[29]. M.S. Martin and co-authors found that approximately 80% of those who tried to commit suicide in childhood were subjected to abuse in the family ^[49]. I. Angelakis and co-authors also determined that adolescents who are subjected to physical, sexual and emotional abuse or neglect are at least two to three times more likely to attempt suicide later in life ^[30].

O.K. Shulga and A.T. Food note that adolescents who have experienced emotional abuse are characterized by a lack of constructive relationships with themselves and the world, distrust of others, resentment, hostility and suspicion ^[59]. 

As a result of this study, it was revealed that minors who have been emotionally abused tend to overcome norms and rules, generally accepted values and patterns of behavior. J. Ritter and co-authors confirm the relationship of violence against adolescents to the subsequent formation of deviant behavior in them ^[31]. O. Solakoglu and co-authors identified the influence of violence against adolescents on their subsequent delinquent behavior ^[32]. The study by A.V. Kolodina presents an analysis of the personal and behavioral characteristics of adolescents exposed to domestic violence; in turn, behavioral characteristics include a tendency to deviant behavior ^[43].

The negative impact of childhood violence on self-esteem and mental health is well described in the literature. As a result of trauma, children may lose a sense of security and integrity. Moreover, incorrect perception of reality under the influence of cognitive mechanisms can increase the feeling of harm and incompleteness and increase the re-experience of heavy emotions. This affects the perceived self-image and self-esteem ^[60]. Building a positive self-image seems to be associated with a lack of experience of peer violence. According to the model of positive youth development, safe interaction with peers contributes to the development of personal resources ^[61]. The reasons why the lack of experience of abuse of peers is so important for self-esteem can also be explained using the theory of sociometry. According to this theory, the degree of inclusion or exclusion affects the level of self-esteem ^[62]. Self-esteem reflects a state of acceptance or rejection (for example, by classmates, a group of peers). The perception of inclusion or exclusion strongly affects self-esteem, especially in adolescence ^[62]. In addition, previous studies have shown that people with high self-esteem may also seek and receive more social support, which may contribute to more adaptive coping behavior and general adaptation ^{[63, 64]}. People with low self-esteem may feel uncomfortable and have great difficulties regarding the ability to identify coping resources and use them for their intended purpose ^[65].

It has been found that adolescents who were not sexually or physically abused in childhood or were not bullied or cyberbullied demonstrate a higher level of self-esteem compared to those who were victims ^[34]. A study conducted in Tanzania found on a sample of 1,000 secondary school students that psychological abuse in childhood is associated with psychological distress and low self-esteem in adolescence ^[33].

The results of the study by B. Jankowiak and co-authors confirm the validity of the use of preventive strategies aimed at the formation of social skills, such as problem solving and the search for social support to strengthen the self-esteem of adolescents ^[34].  It is noted that special support should be given to girls, since they have lower self-esteem than boys. Since sexual or physical abuse in childhood, as well as bullying or cyberbullying, reduce the chances of a higher level of self-esteem in adolescence, even when social support is relatively high and problem-solving skills are achieved, additional measures are required to protect children from victimization. However, for adolescents who are victims of child violence, strategies to increase resources should be complemented by strategies that reduce their risk ^[34].

When interpreting the results of this study, it is necessary to take into account some limitations: the design of the cross-examination does not allow establishing a causal relationship; the study participants were students from randomly selected secondary schools in Arkhangelsk, therefore, there may be some changes in the results when conducting the study in other regions of the country; it is possible that adolescents were subjected to different types of violence at the same time, however, only one type was selected in the questionnaire, and the distribution into groups was carried out in accordance with their answers; the tendency of participants to underestimate or overestimate cases of ill-treatment should be additionally taken into account, and therefore, the results should be interpreted with caution.

The study made it possible to formulate recommendations on psychological and pedagogical support for adolescents who have experienced violence. Children and adolescents who have experienced violence of various types should be provided with the opportunity to receive timely psychological assistance. An important condition for psychological support of adolescents, including survivors of violence, is finding a safe adult in his environment, with whom trusting relationships are built. In accordance with the concept of I.A. Baeva, confidential communication is a necessary condition for psychological security in the educational process ^[66]. Often, such a safe adult, whom a teenager can confide in for the first time and tell about violence at school or family, can be a teacher or coach. Accordingly, it is necessary to increase the competence of teachers in the field of providing psychological and pedagogical support for such students, technologies of communication with them.

For a teenager who has experienced violence, it is important to provide comprehensive assistance: psychological, social, legal. It is recommended to include a teenager in an activity that is interesting to him, in order to get positive emotions and self-worth. In psychological work, it is necessary to start working first of all with the actual consequences of violence that bother the teenager himself, his teachers or family, to update resources, to provide an opportunity to react with restrained emotions: anger, fear. Work is needed to increase self-worth, self-esteem, overcome self-blame, helplessness, restore trust in people and the world. It is possible to work with physicality, especially for teenagers who have experienced physical violence. Regardless of whether there was domestic violence or not, it is important to build psychological work with parents and other loved ones.

Conclusions

According to the results of the study, the majority of adolescents (23%) were subjected to psychological violence, 18.2% - physical violence, 14.5% - emotional and 2.4% - economic violence.

The study revealed statistically significant differences in the severity of suicidal risk, depression, deviant behavior, psychological well-being and self-attitude as characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have experienced various types of violence.

Regarding the characteristics of suicidal risk and depression, the greater severity of affectivity, insolvency, social pessimism and maximalism is characteristic of schoolchildren who have been subjected to psychological and emotional violence, while demonstrativeness, the breakdown of cultural barriers, and the complexity of constructive future planning are more distinguished by adolescents who have experienced physical violence.

Schoolchildren who have been subjected to emotional and physical violence are more prone to overcoming norms and rules, to self-harming and self-destructive behavior, to aggression and violence, to delinquent behavior. At the same time, these types of deviant behavior are more common in adolescents who have experienced physical violence, and they are also characterized by a tendency to addictive behavior.

More pronounced psychological distress was found in adolescents who experienced psychological violence, which manifests itself in greater dissatisfaction with everyday life, mood changes, lower self-esteem of health, significance from the social environment. At the same time, schoolchildren who have been physically abused are more prone to mood changes, lower self-esteem of health and less tension and sensitivity.

The characteristics of self-attitude are also lower in adolescents who have experienced various types of violence. Openness, self-confidence and self-guidance are expressed at a lower level in schoolchildren who have been subjected to psychological and physical violence. A higher level of self-acceptance is characteristic of adolescents who have experienced emotional violence and have not experienced physical violence. This may indicate that physical violence has a greater negative impact than emotional. Internal conflict is more characteristic of adolescents who have experienced emotional violence, and schoolchildren who have experienced physical violence tend to have a reduced level of it, which can be expressed in denial of problems and closeness. Self-worth, characterized by a sense of the value of one's own self, is less evident in adolescents who have experienced physical violence.

The analysis made it possible to establish that all types of violence contribute to an increase in the socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents, while physical violence has a more negative impact. According to the results of the study, it is possible to identify similar characteristics of socio-psychological maladaptation of adolescents who have been subjected to physical, psychological and emotional violence, these include: various forms of deviant behavior, mood changes, reduced self-esteem of health, greater closeness, insecurity, reduced self-esteem and self-worth. To correct them, it is necessary, on the one hand, to reduce the risk of exposure to juvenile violence, and, on the other, to introduce psychological measures to develop qualities and skills that compensate for these impacts.