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Philosophy and Culture
Reference:
Voloshinov, A.V., Semukhina, E.A., Shindel, S.V. (2022). Culture and Morality in the Nineteenth Century: The Origins of Modern European Tolerance. Philosophy and Culture, 5, 12–21. https://doi.org/10.7256/2454-0757.2022.5.37666
Culture and Morality in the Nineteenth Century: The Origins of Modern European Tolerance
Voloshinov Aleksandr Viktorovich
ORCID: 0000-0003-2500-4190
Doctor of Philosophy
Professor, Department of History and Cultural Studies, Saratov State Technical University named after Yuri Gagarin.
410008, Russia, g. Saratov, ul. Politekhnicheskaya, 77
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alvoloshinov@gmail.com
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Semukhina Elena Aleksandrovna
ORCID: 0000-0001-8560-0707
PhD in Philology
Associate Professor, Department of Translation Studies and Intercultural Communication, Yuri Gagarin State Technical University of Saratov
410008, Russia, Saratov region, Saratov, Polytechnic str., 77
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semuh@rambler.ru
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Shindel Svetlana Vladimirovna
PhD in Cultural Studies
Docent, the department of Translation Studies and Intercultural Communication, Yuri Gagarin State Technical University of Saratov
410008, Russia, Saratovskaya oblast', g. Saratov, ul. Politekhnicheskaya, 77
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schindelswetlana@mail.ru
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DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2022.5.37666
Received:
11-03-2022
Published:
24-05-2022
Abstract:
This publication aims to analyze the economic, social, and cultural phenomena that first appeared in the "era of revolutions" that occurred in the nineteenth to early twentieth centuries. The modern European trend toward tolerance, which is the basis of current social and cultural changes, including in our country, has specific intellectual grounds. The subject of the study was the ideosphere of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including philosophical, economic, and psychological concepts that gave rise to modern trends in these areas. The result of this study was the determination of the reasons that caused the change of the ideological paradigm in Europe. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that, for the first time, the intellectual foundations of the formation of tolerance as an actual socio-cultural phenomenon are analyzed. This article consistently proves that among the first such grounds, it is possible to determine the emergence of machine production and, as a result, the appearance of a mass person with a culture corresponding to them, performing a compensatory and entertaining function. The most important cultural foundation is mainly the intellectual "background" created by the teachings of Friedrich Nietzsche, Karl Marx, and Sigmund Freud. The ideas of Anglo-American pragmatism played a significant role in forming a new morality, which included the denial of religion and its values, giving it a utilitarian character. During the subsequent historical period and at present, these views have become the basis for the creation of the so-called "individual faith," in which religion ceases to be the guide of human life but only serves the needs of the individual. The desacralization of religion leads to the study of different aspects of sexuality, which opens up the possibility for modern thinking about gender. The concept of "natural law" should also be attributed to the intellectual factors of the formation of modern European tolerance.
Keywords:
culture, the proletariat, religion, values, intellectual foundations, European tolerance, desacralization of religion, individual faith, natural law, ideosphere
This article written in Russian. You can find original text of the article here
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The author submitted his article "Culture and Morality in the XIX century: at the origins of modern European tolerance" to the journal "Man and Culture", which conducted a study of socio-political and socio-cultural phenomena and events that were prerequisites for the development of the modern European socio-cultural situation. The author proceeds in studying this issue from the fact that the last third of the XIX century seems to be a landmark era, a period of revolutions in all spheres of human activity: industrial, socio-economic, intellectual, cultural. In the socio-cultural direction, the result of the revolutions was the emergence of such a phenomenon as mass culture, which led to a radical paradigm shift of generally accepted values, basic cultural universals, the emergence of a new type of thinking and worldview. According to the author, the period of the late 19th century has many common characteristics with modernity, namely rapid scientific and technological progress, a tense socio-political situation, and the fight against diseases. The relevance of the research lies in the need to study the cultural and intellectual situation of the specified period as a source of prerequisites for the emergence of modern European thinking. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the author's comprehensive analysis of the socio-cultural sphere of the "epoch of revolutions". The theoretical basis of the research was the works of such recognized scientists as F. Nietzsche, K. Marx, F. Engels, Z. Freud, etc. The methodological basis of the study was an integrated approach containing systematic, cultural-historical, comparative methods. The purpose of the study is a comprehensive analysis of the socio-cultural and economic phenomena that served as the basis for the emergence of modern European tolerance. To achieve the purpose of the study, the author conducted a detailed bibliographic analysis of the scientific works of such recognized thinkers as F. Nietzsche, F. Engels, C. Pierce and presented their polemics. In particular, it is interesting to compare the views of J. Heising and K. Marx and F. Engels on the problem of the correlation of the material and spiritual components in the life of society. Based on the theories of the philosophy of life and in particular F. Nietzsche, the author notes the radical reassessment of values that occurred during the period under study. If earlier the values and features of the worldview had a religious basis and were not questioned, then Nietzsche put forward a revolutionary theory for that period about the consideration of moral moral values from the standpoint of their usefulness and necessity for maintaining human life, none of the generally accepted values can be considered absolute. Marxist theorists also put forward the position of the priority of material production over spiritual production. These provisions were further developed in the theories of adherents of the Anglo-American pragmatism trend (Ch, Pierce, W. James). All these directions and provisions have formed the basis for modern utilitarian rational thinking, individualism and recognition of the value of human life. According to the author, the emergence of mass culture has also led to a change in attitudes towards religion. Religious views have become contradictory and fragmented. The image of God became a priority, not an idea. "In the 19th century, philosophers recognized moral and religious values as the results of human activity and thereby made possible modern tolerance, which should more precisely be designated by the concept of "moral indifference." Next, the author examines the economic transformations of the late 19th century from the perspective of their impact on the socio-cultural situation. The formation of the bourgeoisie, the formation of the proletariat entailed the need to create a new type of culture, and this type became mass culture, which lacked deep philosophical ideas and views, and which was distinguished by a light bright content and had a recreational and entertainment function. The industrial development of mass production also led to changes in appearance and fashion trends, clothing, on the one hand, became more rational and less emphasized individuality, and on the other hand, was designed to emphasize female sexual attractiveness. The Industrial Revolution and wars could not but affect gender relations and the changing role of women in society, the development of ideas of emancipation. The author states that thanks to the theories of psychoanalysis (Z. Freud), the attitude towards the concepts of norm and sexuality has radically changed. Sexuality has become an object of scientific discourse and has ceased to be a taboo topic. The concept of norm has become blurred, various kinds of deviations have been interpreted as variations of the norm. The author also notes the concept of "natural law" as an intellectual factor in the formation of modern European tolerance: if all people are born with the same mental abilities, then all reasonable people have equal rights from birth. In conclusion, the author concludes that all the factors considered by him together formed the basis for the emergence of European tolerance and ideas of equality. It seems that the author in his material touched upon relevant and interesting issues for modern socio-humanitarian knowledge, choosing a topic for analysis, consideration of which in scientific research discourse will entail certain changes in the established approaches and directions of analysis of the problem addressed in the presented article. The results obtained allow us to assert that the application of the historical method and the study of the socio-cultural situation in diachrony is of undoubted theoretical and practical cultural interest and can serve as a source of further research. The material presented in the work has a clear, logically structured structure that contributes to a more complete assimilation of the material. An adequate choice of methodological base also contributes to this. The bibliographic list of the study consists of 20 sources, including foreign ones, which seems sufficient for generalization and analysis of scientific discourse on the studied problem. However, the article needs additional verification, as it contains factual errors. For example, the philosopher W. James wrote his work "Philosophical concept and practical results" in 1898. The author fulfilled his goal, received certain scientific results that allowed him to summarize the material. It should be stated that the article may be of interest to readers and deserves to be published in a reputable scientific publication after all the shortcomings have been eliminated.
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