Abstract: Sport is viewed as a form of active and respectable leisure that became popular in Russia in the late XIX – early XX centuries among the upper classes. The article analyzes the reasons, which led Russia towards shifting from the Greek-Byzantine model of leisure to Western European, bringing the examples of fiction writings that reflect the genesis and evolution of sport, enthusiasm of the representatives of nobility for such types of sports and physical activity, as billiard, lawn tennis, cricket, fencing, gymnastics, horse racing, equestrian sports, ice skating, and cycling. Methodology of systemic and axiological approaches used in the research, substantiates the inclusion of examples illustrating the phenomenon of sport in the Russian classics. The analysis of oeuvres by L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, I. A. Bunin, V. V. Nabokov allows concluding that in multiple noble families, the organization of active leisure, physical education, demands in sports activity and healthy lifestyle, were of great importance; thus, the enthusiasm for sports has gradually become the component of everyday culture of the representatives of upper classes.

Keywords: gymnastics, lawn tennis, nobility, artwork, text, literature, culture, sports, leisure, billiards

Abstract: The subject of this research is the modern representations about time (XIX-XX centuries). The author examines the philosophical and religious approaches from the perspective of subjective or objective attitude to the phenomenon of time, infinity and finiteness, discreteness and continuity. The goal of this article consists in the new classification of representations about the phenomenon at hand, analysis of methodology of speaking about time in modern science, examination of the question of applicability of the language of mathematics for describing the time, determination of the contradictory aspects on this matter. The author uses the critical analysis of the existing views upon nature and essence of time, as well as discusses the forms of time in terms of the proposed classification. The main conclusion underlines the need of discreteness of time for the development and evolution of the existing world. Such position, however, does not exclude the possibility of its continuity. Because these characteristics complement each other, rather than contradict. The author poses a questions about the possibility of objective criterion for selecting the final position with regards to the main properties of time alongside the search of a new language for its description.

Keywords: eternity, finiteness, infinity, object, subject, continuity, discreteness, time, evolution, language

Abstract: It is traditionally believed that philosophy attempts to rationally, logically, and categorically comprehend one or another phenomenon, and due to rationalism, the humanity gradually advances in its development. There was practically no place for irrationalism that is difficult to be expressed through the language of philosophical rationality. Mysticism and irrationalism were proclaimed the non-philosophical absurd. Currently has emerged the need for reconsidering the original positions in understanding of the role of rationalistic and irrationalistic philosophical directions and principles of cognizing the world, because the disparaging attitude to all that does not fit the framework of logics, irrational aspects of spiritual life, and irrationalism as a whole, remains dominant within the public consciousness. However, the authors believe that the history of human society develops in continuous alternation of the two key phases: ratio with irratio, eras of dominance of rationalism with eras of dominance of irrational faith. The conclusion is made that the rationalistic and irrationalistic teachings apply different semantic categorical apparatus, and it should be taken into account in comparing and contrasting the different eras, as well as trends of realization of the meanings of human existence. Thus, characterizing the Middle Ages, it is valuable to speak the language of the most renowned author of that time – Aurelius Augustine, rather than the rational language of "killing" the essence of irrational faith in the one God. Philosophical pursuits of the XX and XXI centuries were not an exception, and manifested as the peculiar continuation of medieval strivings for combination and opposition of rationality and irrationality in such directions as pragmatism and existentialism.

Keywords: Christianity, faith, reason, religion, irrationalism, rationalism, theology, Middle Ages, philosophy, mysticism

Abstract: The object of this research is the anxiety as such, the matter that derives from metaphysical; while the subjects is the attitude to human anxiety, where significance lies in the desires, expectations, and fear.  Objectification of anxiety is realized through the notions of “structure” and “meaning”. The three types of anxiety are determined: as mysterious action; as eventfulness; as total fear. In the concept of anxiety, the abundance of meanings expresses its essence, as they absorb the sensory experience and give the thought a problematic point of localization of the sensory and the intellectual. The author leans on the fact that anxiety is the “chipped” from fear psychic component, which throughout the centuries, experiences the impact of diverse cultures, and remained contingent upon fear. Methodology of this work is based on the metaphysical interrogation and epistemological analysis; the semantic language of anxiety develops in accordance with the philosophical traditions. Moving in circle in examination of the philosophical issues of anxiety, the author suggests the original conceptual scheme of shifting from anxiety as such towards the anxiety as a concept. Manifesting as an act of “grasping”, the concept contains variations with the distinct basic elements – expectation, desire, and fear. However, as a mystery, the anxiety does not fit the Procrustean bed of the concept. Thus is remains an object of interrogation rather that rational comprehension, since the study of anxiety implies everything associated with behavioral, and does not come across the archetypical.

Keywords: desire, structure, fear, sense, event, anxiety as a concept, anxiety, expectation, types of anxiety, meanings

Abstract:   The object of this research is the work of the prominent figure of the Bourgeois Revolution in France, one of the most remarkable French philosophers and public character of the Age of Enlightenment Antoine Barnave. The deputy of the Constituent Assembly over the period of 1789-1791, supporter of the constitutional monarchy, executed by the Jacobins, has lived his short life outstandingly, being an orator, a lawyer, a public character, and a scholar. The article is dedicated to the study of another little-studied part of his scientific legacy – the geopolitical views. The author conducts a comparative, historical, and typological analysis of the most well-known work of Antoine Barnave – “The Introduction to the French Revolution”. Examination of his scientific heritage allowed revealing that Barnave had implemented the methodology based on fundamental geopolitical dualism of the continental and maritime powers that in the XX century was acknowledged as the basic law of geopolitics far before Karl Haushofer and Mackinder Helford. Thus, the author makes a conclusion about Antoine Barnave as one of the first classics of geopolitics, as well as the earlier existence of the methodology of geopolitical analysis and geopolitical knowledge.  

Keywords: Land Power, Sea Power, continental-oceanic dichotomy, Tellurocracy, Thalassocracy, basic law of geopolitics, geopolitical dualism, Antoine Barnave, geopolitical theory, classics of geopolitics

Abstract: This article discusses the various views of philosophy and information theory upon the definition and structure of information, means of its acquisition and verification, different approaches towards the quantitative description of information, as well as L. Floridi’s approach to definition of information. The work highlights the basic types of formalizing the term “information”, types of information and information interaction, as well as the specificity of information in natural and humanitarian sciences, its completeness and validity. The author analyzes the appropriateness of the notion of “false fact”. The article defines, classifies, and examines different types of information and information interaction. The author conducts a comparative analysis of approaches of information theory and philosophy towards definition of information, provides definitions to the pragmatic information and pragmatic knowledge, and separates the information from knowledge. The article also analyzed the approach towards the information theory to establishment and structuring of information and its adequacy.

Keywords: information and communication technologies, information interaction, pragmatic knowledge, pragmatic information, semantic knowledge, semantic information, information, data, critical analysis of information, facts

Abstract: One of the relevant problems of Russian society lies in organization of the efficient counteraction to Islamic terrorism. Special role in preventing of such variety of extremism is played by the ideological struggle with the radical Islamism that must be of complex character. In absence of the integral ideology of counteracting extremism, which is just being outlined, it is essential to pay attention to the religious components that can be a favorable soil for extremism. In the course of fighting the Islamic extremism, remains relevant the position “Islam against Islam”. The author examines the possibility of implementing Sharia in the ideological struggle with the radical Islamism. The article applies the scientific-philosophical  methodology of assessing the peculiarities of functionality of the religious normative system under the specific sociocultural circumstances. The effectiveness of such fight is defined by the present capabilities of Ijtihad that encourage the reformation of Sharia, specificity of public consciousness of Muslim population, as well as peculiarities of sociopolitical orientations of the diverse religious and political movements that interpret the corresponding assignments of Sharia in a specific manner. The author believes that the search for noncontradictory combination of Sharia with the acting national legislation looks promising.

Keywords: Jihadism, Ijtihad, Sharia, ideological struggle, Islamic radicalism, Islamic state, Islamism, Islam, Takfiri, Islamic extremism

Abstract: This article turns to the problem of implementation of the principles of multiculturalism in organizing the architectural layout of the European metropolises. The authors raise a question of the mission of architecture and design in establishment of the comfortable multicultural environment of a contemporary city. As an example, the article analyzes the project of a city park “Superkilen” located in one of the districts of Copenhagen, as well as reviews the projects of accommodation of refugees in the countries of European Union. In conclusion, the experience of organizing space in the European Union is compared with the similar experience of USSR; the directions for further examination of multicultural urban space are outlined. Alongside the retrospective analysis of literature on this matter, the authors refer to the general scientific method of analogy, which allows comparing the individual cases of application of ethnocultural symbolic in architectural projects. The work also considers the principle of social project planning and “green architecture”, discusses the separate methods of contemporary design, conversion approach applied in reorganization of the urban environment. The scientific novelty is defined by the fact that the problem of unregulated and poorly regulated due to its scale migration is relatively new for the core countries of the global system, and it most likely would not be resolved in the nearest future. At the same time, the impact of migration that is directed primarily to large cities, upon the architectural and design solutions, changes in housing development, recreational zones within the urbanized territories, has not previously become a subject of research. The exceptions are the development within the project Ersamus + Jean Monnet: Multicultural Europe: City Planning Based On The Principles of Social Integration”. This article is written in the context of this project.

Keywords: urban management, city, urban planning, urban space, architectural space, intercultural dialogue, Multiculturalism, migration, migrants, refugees

Abstract: The subject of this research is the problem of essential personal existence of a human in the philosophical-religious heritage of Paul Tillich. Anthropology in the works of P. Tillich is inseparably related to the general ontological problematic. The thinker leans in the fact that the mechanically objectified scientific consideration of human is false, because it leave out of account the holistic aspect and freedom of the individual. Arguing against the transformation of personality into a thing that can be controlled and calculated by the technical sciences, against the “natural” and “biological” understanding of human, P. Tillich deals with the “existential human”, who is involved in any situation as a coherent personality, existing in multiplicity of interaction of its dialectical levels. P. Tillich doctrine on personality is viewed from the perspective of origin and development of the creative approaches of the thinker in terms of their eristic orientation with regards to other models and problematic of filiation of the ideas. The scientific novelty is substantiated by the fact that despite the permanent keen interest to the works of P. Tillich, his personalistic problematic did not find extended coverage in the Russian historical-philosophical literature, but rather manifested as one of the components without accentuating the problem of personality as such. This article sets the goal to fulfill such gap.    

Keywords: holism, world, personality, human, essential being, anthropology, ontology, being, Paul Tillich, existentialism

Abstract:   Whereas the theme of power has always been in the center of philosophical thought, it was mostly associated with the questions of government structure and politics – origin, delegation of power, mechanisms of its retention and augmentation, manifested as an instrument of ensuring the social stability. In other words, the power was viewed as a vivid and axiomatic phenomenon, which however, required the politological, social, and ethical analysis. Only the beginning of the XIX century marks the drastic reconsideration of power, overcomes the dominant substantial representations, determines the significant contradictions characteristic to power as such, as well as phenomenon of its own. The most considerable contribution into reevaluation of philosophy was performed by F. Nietzsche, who consolidated the will to power as a primary reality of human existence. The philosopher demonstrated that the lust for power is not destiny of the chosen, but an unconscious desire of any individual. Although the power is externally justified by the social causes, introspectively, based on the internal logics of its development, does not need them, being a cause in of itself and complying with the law of self-expansion and self-affirmation. Enrooted in human nature, the lust for power manifests as an instinct, as well as passion and feeling of fascination with your own strength. The author attempts to reconstruct the views of F. Nietzsche upon the phenomenon of human passions, and concludes that in the philosopher’s perceptions, passions express the highest level of individual, inner, which confront the transpersonal, social, and moral. It is underlined that power can be viewed as the way for ego-expansion, metaphorical extension of boundaries of the “body”. Special attention is given to the state of anarchy that usually is associated with chaos and destructions, but in Nietzsche’s interpretation represents a highest level of power.    

Keywords: ego-expansion, domination, Mahatma Gandhi, power rapture, power vacuum, instinct, passion, Nietzsche, will to power, power refusal

Abstract: The subject of this research is the artistic and aesthetic principles of the American avant-gardist John Cage, based on the religious and philosophical principles and categories of Zen Buddhism applied in his musical compositions. Such principles as unintentionality, incident, indeterminism, inconstancy and variability, unity, simultaneous plurality, intefusion of art and life, have formed under the influence of the four noble truths of Buddhism, categories of inaction, Nothingness, emptiness, and also the essential foundations of Zen Buddhism, including the representations about the world (human and nature), spiritual practice, etc. All of the aforementioned principles will find application in the specific writing techniques, genres, forms and types of musical and creative activity of Cage. The scientific novelty of this research lies in the first attempt within Russian musicology to connect the religious and philosophical principles and categories of Zen Buddhism with the artistic and aesthetic principles of Cage, draw analogies between them, provide a concrete explanation to what they represent and how they affect the composer’s musical works.

Keywords: variability, inaction, philosophy, religion, principle, music, Zen Buddhism, John Cage, incident, indeterminism