Abstract: The article concerns topical problems of organization of the bread trade. The studies of the archive documents and analysis of normative legal acts of the Russian Empire of 1881- 1913, many of which have been introduced into the scientific turnover for the first time, have allowed the author to reveal the historical specificities of the first experience in formation of the mechanism for the legal regulation of the warehouse activities. The article has shown the process of formation of the system of norms regulating the relations in the sphere of goods, storage and elevators, the author also shows motives and goals of the relevant normative acts, specific features and difficulties in their implementation. The inefficiency of the solution of existing problems via the market mechanisms required searching for the mechanisms, which strengthened the state interference in the organization of the bread trade.

Keywords: trade, bread, grain, legal export, classification, sorting, quality, supervision, elevator, warehouse, grain depot, loan, warrant, the State Bank.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the characteristics of the lawful grounds of legal conscience, which concern understanding the truth of legal conscience, its comprehensive image. According to the discoveries, made by the representatives of Russian and foreign natural and humanitarian sciences regarding quantum mechanics, holographic status of the Universe, informational and microleptonic fields the following conclusions are made: these laws serve as fundamental basis for the conscience in general and legal conscience in particular, specifically, in its interaction with the public law matters, them being a part of the material world and being recognized as an element of the least fundamental part of being under these laws. Being at the lower level they are secondary in comparison to legal conscience. There is need for the legal science and practice to recognize legal conscience as superfine energy, information as a field structure. It should facilitate more comprehensive understanding and improvement of legal conscience and its active use for achieving the goals of state and law.

Keywords: relative legal conscience, lawful bases of legal conscience, universal legal conscience, comprehensive understanding of legal conscience, legal conscience as an energy, information.

Abstract: The development of the public influence as means for the correction of the sentenced persons is closely connected to the development of the institution of the criminal punishment and it is most clearly reflected in the history of formation of prisons. In various periods of development of the Russian state the character of participation of the society in the fate of the sentenced persons changed. It was procedural and material at the time of the rule of Tsar Ivan the Terrible; it was material and spiritual at the time of Tsar Alexis Mikhailovich, the innovative approaches to corrections of criminals and involvement of the public were typical for the rule of Catherine the II (the institutions of parole and charitable activities were developing at the time, and so were the law-making and the institution of public opinion.

Keywords: society, criminal punishment, charity, correction of the sentenced persons, implementation of criminal punishment, public influence, correctional means, correctional influence, criminal penal law, prisons.

Abstract: The compensation of losses and spending of the insured parties due to the maritime transportation of hazardous cargo which did not take place is complicated by the foreign element in the relations. The methodology of choice of applicable law is unpredictable and it has a variety of detailing factors. The complete character of obligation statute is defined by the law of the state, where the cargo was taken by the carrier, rather than by the reference to the legal order of the basic contract. Then the factors of amount of cargo, place of loading, amount of freight become specifying categories. None of the attachment formulae has proven to be optimally efficient, if safe operation of a vessel serves as a guarantee of prevention of the insured event. Considering this background the choice of personal law of the insured party is complicated and the material law concerns the distribution of losses between the costs of troublesome party of goods and the freight costs. Thus, any legal order becomes vulnerable, especially since the costs of significant transportation conditions are due to the need to save the goods. The delict obligation should provide due consideration for an independent conflict of laws decision in order to guarantee the tariff for the pure net award. The legal order of the state, where the vessel was registered shall also be popular, since it shall strengthen the weak link between the events and de-facto spending.

Keywords: maritime transportation, hazardous cargo, insurance, legal order, conflict of law, delicts, risk quotations, general accident, insured event, insurance coverage.

Abstract: The use of knowledge and skills of advocates in order to support illegal or immoral claims or objections of clients was directly prohibited back in the Ancient Rome. This prohibition was included into the text of a special professional oath, which the advocates had to announce at the start of every case where they represented parties. Similar provisions were contained in the latter medieval normative legal acts and codes of local customs. However, it would be a mistake to regard these provisions as absolute, since evaluation of lawfulness and morality was given by the advocates themselves, and secondly the perspective of the case might have been unclear at the time when the client addressed a lawyer. The externally uncompromising position on inadmissibility of advocacy in unjust cases was taken by the French lawyers. However, with some time many renowned lawyers from other states were opposed to them. As for legislation, at the time of Napoleon on February 4, 1804 the text of a new oath of advocates was adopted, and it did not include any references as to choice of cases by them. By the second half of the XIX century only the Belgian legislation provided that the advocates should defend only those cases, which seem just to their soul and conscience”. However, the issue remained topical at the level of doctrine and ethics of advocates. For example, the English advocates did not came to agreement, and various disputes remained among the Russian advocates, which required that the discussion continued in XX century.

Keywords: advocate, taking an assignment, choice of cases, representing in unjust cases, moral injustice, legal injustice, oath, termination of prohibition, discretion of a lawyer.

Abstract: The article includes analysis of attempts to renew the Western Roman Empire «with the force of German arms», which were taken by the kings of Roman-German states and later by the Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. It is shown how the ambitious project of «Sacrum Imperium Romanorum» became the «Reich of German Nation». The lasting conflict between the power of Emperors and Popes has shown that both parties were not ready to control their personal motives in order to fulfill a historic mission. The Popes and the Emperors failed to fulfill the testament of Charlemagne on the returning to the unity of the Christian world, or at least the Western Europe, and their policies led to the opposing results. This conflict has became one of the reasons for the failure of the Crusades of 1096 to 1270, which were aimed at retrieving the Middle Eastern provinces of the former Roman Empire from the Islam. However, most of the leaders of the Crusaders were not able to interact constructively. The loss of control over Italy by the Hohenstaufens lead to the changes in the character of the Empire. The Roman-German «Sacrum Imperium Romanorum» lost its universal character, becoming «Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutcher Nation», and de facto the First Reich of the German Nation. The formula «The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation» appeared in the 2nd half of the XV century at the time of the Emperor Friedrich the III, however, de facto the situation was formed earlier. However, the idea of «translatio imperii» was not exhausted, and its novel modification and new figures have appeared.

Keywords: jurisprudence, history, Empire, Germany, Reich, nation, force, arms, Rome, the Pope.

Abstract: The article concerns the principle of justice and institution of guilt In the criminal law, their enshrinement in criminal law as basic principles (together with the principle of humanism), as provided for in the basic provisions of criminal law regulation. The author discusses such issues as implementation of the principle of justice in the criminal law in reality. The author also studies theoretical issues of justice as such and justice in criminal law. He analyzes norms of General and Special Parts of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation in regard of their compliance with the principle of justice. The article also analyses guilt, which is an important principle of criminal law. The author analyzes definition and contents of guilt, its main forms, its practical implementation, and debatable issues, such as dual (complicated) forms of guilt, and crisis of the institution of guilt in criminal law, which is due to accumulation of contradictions in legal norms, and to the need for their development, practice of application of criminal law, and theoretical works of legal scholars regarding the topical issues of guilt.

Keywords: jurisprudence, principle of justice, guilt, institution of guilt, crime, form of guilt, social danger, personality of a criminal, encroachment, criminal act, criminal law.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the studies of the processes of formation and transformation of the institutions of criminal law in the Russian legislation in X–XXI centuries, as well as to the analysis of the development of scientific thought on its nature and systematization. The author evaluates the factors, which influenced various stages of this process, he evaluates to the first codified normative acts of the Ancient Russia. As a result of this attempt to define the key stages of evolution of the institutions of the Russian criminal law, the author comes to a conclusion that there are two key periods, which are different in their length, but similar in their characteristics, the first being from the X century to the early XX century, the second being from 1917 to the current period. Due to the logic of legal development the first historically formed institutions of criminal law are the institutions on specific crimes, which is due to the urgent need for the list of prohibited acts and the list of punishments for their commission. The general institutions of criminal law appear later, when the science manages to achieve certain theoretical abstractions, some ideal provisions on crime and punishment. The article includes analysis of the works of the renowned Russian legal scholars throughout the period in question, which laid the grounds for the higher quality codification of legal materials. The author comes to a conclusion that the Russian legislation up to the middle of XX century did not know the period when all of the criminal law institutions were included into one codified act. However the centuries of experience of codification of legislation served as the basis for the development of scientific thought at the current stage.

Keywords: jurisprudence, institution, law, norm, requirement, codification, punishment, crime, source, development.

Abstract: The article includes analysis of the efficiency of various models of enforcement proceedings in Russia in XIX — early XX centuries. It is shown that the model of penal proceedings, for which the legislation of the first half of the XIX century provided, was a public law model and it guaranteed the enforcement of only half of the court decisions on civil cases. Due to some organizational and procedural legal reasons the enforcement process could commonly last for about 5 years. Due to the judicial reform of 1864 there was a transfer to a mixed judicial model for the enforcement of court decisions on civil cases. It turned out to be more efficient, and it guaranteed enforcement of about 70% of decisions within a year. The process of enforcement of judicial decision was generally about 2 years long. This success is directly connected with the institution of court enforcement officers and the ability for the claimant to have a more active role, while it also made the judicial enforcement more costly.

Keywords: jurisprudence, court, execution, claimant, debtor, court enforcement officer, police, process, judicial procedure, justice.

Abstract: The article contains analysis of legal regulation of the military punishments. The author makes a conclusion that the Russian criminal military law showed «immobility» of forms of punishment throughout its history. In spite of the codification of the Russian legislation in the first half of the XIX century, the types of punishment in various acts of the Russian Empire were not unified. Moreover, the competition remained among the norms of the Penal Code of 845 and the Military Criminal Statute of 1839. By the middle of XIX century the system of military punishments was not yet formed.

Keywords: jurisprudence, punishment, crime, military officer, discipline, the Statute, the Code, law, offence, capital punishment.

Abstract: In the ancient Russian criminal law property was one of the most important object of protection under criminal law. The encroachment upon property is recognized as criminal in almost all of the ancient Russian law, including the treaties between Russia and Byzantine Empire, the Russian Truth, the Pskov and Novgorod Judicial Charters, the treaties of the Russian cities with the Germans. The ancient Russian legislator gives detailed provisions on characteristic features of victims, objects of criminal encroachments and methods of crimes against property, which included not only theft and unlawful use of property belonging to other persons, but also destruction and harming of property. Such attention to characteristic features to object and objective elements of crime facilitated the formation of the optimal mechanism for the differentiation of the criminal responsibility of persons found guilty of such crimes. The presence or absence of property defined many vital issues for the ancient Russian people. These issues included the social stratification and legal self- Identification of person in the ancient Russian state. That is why encroachments on property were severely punished in the criminal law of the ancient Russia, and the punishment could be capital. Modern ideas on object and system of the judicial expertology.

Keywords: jurisprudence, theft, armor, arms, horse, future use, code, bail, arson.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the little-known page of history of codification o Russian military legislation. The author provides systematic description of the conditions under which the largest acts in military procedural and criminal legislation of Russia in XVIII — early XIX century («Articles of War» and «Brief Description of Processes and Judicial Proceedings») were formed. Based on the use of the authentic publications and archive sources, which were not previously introduced to the scientific turnover, the author shows that the first version of «the Brief Description of Processes» was issued in 1712, and the first version of «the Articles of War» was issued in 1714. The author states that both legislative drafts were written by a lawyer and ober-auditor E. Krompein. In this article the author provides for the first time the analysis of differences between the draft of «the Brief Description of Processes» and its versions of 1712 and 1715, as well as the differences between the versions of «the Articles of War» of 1714, 1715 and 1719. The author also casts light upon the history of publication of these acts in the first quarter of the XVIII century, and he characterizes the role of Tsar Peter the 1st in their drafting. The article includes a complete list of normative sources, which were used in development of the draft for «the Brief Description of Processes» and «the Articles of War». Finally the author established that when the «Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire since 1649» was published an unofficial publication of the above-mention acts of 1748 was mistakenly used.

Keywords: jurisprudence, the Articles of War, codification, military criminal legislation, military procedural legislation, the Brief Description of Processes, legislative process, Tsar Peter the 1st, military courts, E. Krompein.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the topical problems of protection of rights of customers In the sphere of foodstuff goods, which worried the Russian people in the last century. Taking the falsification of butter as an example, the author shows the difficulties of legal organization of fighting falsification and the solutions used. The study of the archive documents and analysis of the normative legal acts of the Russian Empire of 1881-1913 allowed the author to show the specific features of the Russian legal regulation mechanism against falsification of foodstuffs and unfair competition.

Keywords: jurisprudence, law, trade, foodstuffs, butter, margarine, customer, falsification, supervision, seller, responsibility.