Abstract: The article analyzes and evaluates the cycle of governance in 20th century Russia, beginning with the Revolution
of 1905. Drawing on a close study of a number of new organizations created by the Soviet regime, such as VSNKh
or Sovnarkom, the author considers which state structures and institutionalized behaviors crossed the revolutionary divide,
helping the new political elite to regain political capacity and authority, and producing long-lasting and significant consequences.
The author pays particular attention to the origins and evolution of economic planning in Soviet Russia, using
the institutional approach in his examination of the main structures of state governance of the Soviet economy, and also the
comparative methodology for the study of the cycles of governance in the pre-Revolutionary and Soviet periods of Russian/
USSR history. The analysis and comparison of the creations of the new regime and state bodies of Imperial Russia led to the
conclusion that the new rules of the game were essentially extensions of the patterns already in train, just as their reliance
on the restored, increasingly powerful, increasingly autonomous centralized state apparatus. The author, however, does not
assert that the new regime assumed the old imperial calculus of power without modifications.
Keywords: history, Russian state, state-economy, national economy, state organizations, system of governance, Bolshevik policy, neo-institutional theory , Sovnarkom, VSNKh.
Contact information: Don K. Rowney, 2447 Scottwood Av., Toledo, Ohio 43620.
References:
Gatrell P. A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999.
Day, Richard B. Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
Deutscher, Isaac. The Prophet Unarmed. Trotsky: 19211929. New York: Vintage, 1965.
Drobizhev V. Z. Glavnyi shtab sotsialisticheskoi promyshlennosti. Moscow: Mysl', 1966.
Erlich, Alexander. The Soviet Industrialization Debate,19241928. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1960.
Ferro M. Revolution et totalitarianisme. La naissance du systeme bureaucratique en U.R.S.S. // Annales. Economies, Societes, Civilisations. 31e annee. No 1. 1976.
Figes O., Kolonitskii B. Interpreting the Russian Revolution. The Language and Symbols of 1917. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.
Carr, Edward Hallett. The Russian Revolution from Lenin to Stalin, 19171929. London: Macmillan, 1979.
Coopersmith, Jonathan. The Electrification of Russia, 18801926. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992.
Cohen, Stephen F. Rethinking the Soviet Experience. Politics and History since 1917. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Carr, Edward Hallett. The Bolshevik Revolution, 19171923.New York: Norton, 1952. V. 2.
Cohen, Stephen F. Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.
Ballod, Karl. Gosudarstvo budushchago: proizvodstvo i potreblenie v sotsial'nom gosudarstve /S predisloviem K. Kautskago. St. Petersburg, 1906.
Bennett, Andrew and George, Alexander L. Case Studies and Process Tracing in History and Political Science: Similar Strokes for Different Foci // Bridges and Boundaries. Historians, Political Scientists, and the Study of International Relations / Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman, eds. Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1991.
Bailes, Kendall E. Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin. Origins of the Soviet Technical Intelligentsia, 19171941. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.
Arkhipova T. G., Rumiantseva M. F., Senin A. S. Istoriia gosudarstvennoi sluzhby v Rossii. XVIIIXX veka. Moscow: Russian State Humanities University, 2001.
Alchon, Guy. The Invisible Hand of Planning: Capitalism, Social Science and the State in the 1920s. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985.
Graziosi, Andrea. Building the First System of State Industry in History. Piatakov's VSNKh and the Crisis of the NEP, 19231926 // Cahiers du Monde Rousse et Sovietique. 1991. 22, 4 (OctoberDecember). P. 539580.
Grinevetskii V. I. Poslevoennye perspektivy Russkoi promyshlenosti. Second edition, Moscow: Press of the All-Russian Central Union of Consumer Societies, 1922. (The first edition: Kharkov, 1919).
Guroff, Gregory. State and Industrialization in Russian Economic Thought, 19091914. Princeton: Doctoral Dissertation, Princeton University (1970).
Husband, William Benjamin. The Nationalization of the Textile Industry of Soviet Russia, 19171920. Princeton University, PhD dissertation, 1984.
Jasny, Naum. Soviet Economists of the Twenties. Names to be Remembered. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
K istorii plana elektrifikatsii Sovetskoi Strany. Sbornik dokumentov i materialov, 19181920 gg. / Ed. I. A. Gladkov. Reprint of the 1923 publication. Moscow: State Press for Political Literature, 1952.
Kafengauz L. B. Sindikaty v Rossii // Evoliutsiia promyshlennogo proizvodstva Rossii (posledniaia tret' XIX v. 30-e gody XX v.). Ed. L. B. Kafengauz. Moscow, 1994.
Kaufman A. The History and Development of the Official Russian Statistics // The History of Statistics. Their Development and Progress in Many Countries / John Koren, ed. New York: Franklin, (1918; reprint, 1970). P. 469534.
Kenez, Peter. The Birth of the Propaganda State. Soviet Method of Mass mobilization, 19171929. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Kotkin, Stephen. 1991 and the Russian Revolution: Sources, Conceptual Categories, Analytic Frameworks // Journal of Modern History. V. 70 (June 1998). P. 384425.
Laverychev V. Ia. Gosudarstvo i monopolii v dorevoliutsionnoi Rossii. Moscow: Mysl', 1982.
Laverychev V. Ia. Zarozhdenie gosudarstvenno-monopolisticheskikh tendentsii v rossiskoi ekonomike kontsa XIX v. // Istoricheskie zapiski Akademii Nauk SSSR. V. 109. Moscow, 1983.
Lenin V. I. Our Foreign and Domestic Position and Party Tasks (November 21, 1920) // Collected Works. 4th English Edition. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965. V.
Lenin V. I. The Impending Catastrophe and How to Combat It // Lenin's Economic Writings / Meghnad Desai ed. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989.
Leontief, Wassily. The Decline and Rise of Soviet Economic Science // Foreign Affairs. 1960. V. 38. No. 2 (January). P. 261272.
Leontief, Wassily. The Balance of the Economy of the USSR. (A Methodological Analysis of the Work of the Central Statistical Administration) // Essays in Economics. Theories, Facts and Policies. New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1977. V. 2.
Lewin, Moshe. N. I. Boukharine: Ses idees sur la planification economique et leur actualite // Cahiers du Monde Russe et Sovietique. 1972. 13, 4. P. 481501.
Lewin, Moshe. Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates. From Bukharin to the Modern Reformers. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974.
Lih L. T. Bread and Authority in Russia, 19141921. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
Littlejohn, Gary. The Agrarian Marxist Research in its Political Context: State Policy and the Development of the Soviet Rural Class Structure in the 1920s // Journal of Peasant Studies. 1984. No 11, 1. P. 6184.
Malle S. The Economic Organization of War Communism, 19181921. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Materials for a Balance of the Soviet National Economy, 19281930 / S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, eds. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Mespoulet, Martine. Statistique et revolution en Russie. Un compromis impossible (18801950). Rennes: Presses Universitaire de Rennes, 2001.
Miliutin, Vladimir P. The Economic Organisation of Soviet Russia: a Brief Sketch of the Organisation and the Present Situation of Industry in Russia. London: Communist Party of Great Britain, 1920.
Morozov L. F., Portnov V. P. Nachal'nyi etap v osushchestvlenii Leninskikh idei o gosudarstvennom kontrole // Voprosy Istorii KPSS. 1979. N 11. P. 3344;
O nekotorykh merakh k obezpecheniiu toplivom uchrezhdenii armii i flota i putei soobshcheniia a ravno chastnykh predpriiatii, rabotaiushchikh dlia tselei gosudarstvennoi oborony // Sobranie uzakonenii. St. 865 (31 March, 1915); O rasprostranenii polnomochii, prisvoennykh Ministru Putei Soobshcheniia Imennym Vysochaishim Ukazom 4ogo Marta 1915 goda, na dela po obezpecheniiu toplivom gosudarstvennykh i obshchestvennykh uchrezhdenii // Sobraniie uzakonenii. St. 1091 (2 May, 1915); O predostavlenii Ministru Torgovli i Promyshlennosti osobykh polnomochii po obshchemy rukovodstvu prodovol'stvennym delom v Imperii // Sobrannie uzakonenii. St. 1169 (19 May, 1915); Ob utverzhdenii pravil o poriadke i usloviiakh raspredeleniia tverdago mineral'nago topliva mezhdu potrebiteliami // Sobraniie uzakonenii. St. 1215 (29 May, 1915); Ob utverzhdenii polozheniia ob osobom soveshchanii dlia ob'edineniia meropriatii po obezpecheniiu deistvuiushchei armii predmetami boevogo i material'nago snabzheniia // Sobraniie uzakonenii. St. 1280 (7 June, 1915).
O roli pravitel'stva i chastnoi initsiativy v dele ustroistva, oborudovaniia i eksploatatsii nashikh torgovykh portov. I. Doklad Inzhenera V. E. Timonova and II. Doklad Inzhenera N. I. Vosnesenskogo // Izvestiia Sobraniia Inzhenerov Putei Soobshcheniia. 1892. No. 1 (January). P. 1324.
People's Commissariat for Posts and Telegraphs, Perepis' rabotnikov sviazi, 27 inavaria 1927 goda. Moscow: Press of the Peoples Commissariat for Posts and Telegraphs, 1929.
Porter, Bruce D. War and the Rise of the State. The Military Foundations of Modern Politics. New York: Free Press, 1994.
Preobrazhenskii E. A. Novaia ekonomika. Opyt teoreticheskogo analiza sovetskogo khoziaistva. Moscow: Press of the Communist Academy, 1926.
Preobrazhenskii E. A. The Crisis of Soviet Industrialization. Selected Essays. Ed. with an Introduction by Donald A. Filtzer. White Plains, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1979.
Remington, Thomas F. Building Socialism in Bolshevik Russia. Ideology and Industrial Organization, 19171921. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984.
Rigby T. H. Lenin's Government: Sovnarkom 19171922. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
Rosenberg W. G. Social Mediation and State Construction(s) in Revolutionary Russia // Social History. V. 19. No 2 (May, 1994).
Rowney D. K. Narrating the Russian Revolution: Institutionalism and Continuity across Regime Change // Comparative Study of Society and History. V. 47. January 2005. P. 79105.
Rowney D. K. The Scope, Authority, and Personnel of the New Industrial Commissariats, 19281936 // Social Dimensions of Soviet Industrialization / W. G. Rosenberg, L. Siegelbaum (eds.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. P. 124145.
Rowney D. K. Transition to Technocracy. The Structural Origins of the Soviet Administrative State. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989.
Siegelbaum L. H. The Politics of Industrial Mobilization in Russia, 19141917: a Study of the War-Industry Committees. New York: St. Martin's, 1983.
Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions. A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
Smolinski, Leon. Grinevetskii and Soviet Industrialisation // Survey. 1968. No 67.
Stanziani, Alessandro Statisticiens, zemstva et etat dans la Russie des annees 1880 //Cahiers du Monde Russe et Sovietique. 1991. 32, 4. P. 445467.
Sultanov F. Ob ustroistve podezdnyikh putei i portov v oblastiiakh, primykaiushchikh s iuzhnoi chasti Kaspiiskago moriia // Izvestiia Sobraniia Inzhenerov Putei Soobshcheniia. 1900. No. 7. P. 129136.
Trotsky L. My Life. An Attempt at an Autobiography. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1960.
Trotsky L. Towards Socialism or Capitalism? / Trans. R. S. Townsend and Z. Vengerova. London: Methuen, 1926.
Vasiaev V. I. et al. Dannye perepisi sluzhashchikh 1922 g. Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1962.
Vincenti, Walter. What Engineers Know and How They Know It. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991
Zaionchkovskii P. A. Samoderzhavie i russkaia armiia na rubezhe XIXXX stoletii. Moscow: Mysl', 1973.
Zvezdin Z. K. Ot plana GOELRO k planu pervoi piatiletki. Moscow: Nauka, 1979.
References (transliteration):
Gatrell P. A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999.
Day, Richard B. Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
Deutscher, Isaac. The Prophet Unarmed. Trotsky: 19211929. New York: Vintage, 1965.
Drobizhev V. Z. Glavnyi shtab sotsialisticheskoi promyshlennosti. Moscow: Mysl', 1966.
Erlich, Alexander. The Soviet Industrialization Debate,19241928. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1960.
Ferro M. Revolution et totalitarianisme. La naissance du systeme bureaucratique en U.R.S.S. // Annales. Economies, Societes, Civilisations. 31e annee. No 1. 1976.
Figes O., Kolonitskii B. Interpreting the Russian Revolution. The Language and Symbols of 1917. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.
Carr, Edward Hallett. The Russian Revolution from Lenin to Stalin, 19171929. London: Macmillan, 1979.
Coopersmith, Jonathan. The Electrification of Russia, 18801926. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992.
Cohen, Stephen F. Rethinking the Soviet Experience. Politics and History since 1917. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Carr, Edward Hallett. The Bolshevik Revolution, 19171923.New York: Norton, 1952. V. 2.
Cohen, Stephen F. Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.
Ballod, Karl. Gosudarstvo budushchago: proizvodstvo i potreblenie v sotsial'nom gosudarstve /S predisloviem K. Kautskago. St. Petersburg, 1906.
Bennett, Andrew and George, Alexander L. Case Studies and Process Tracing in History and Political Science: Similar Strokes for Different Foci // Bridges and Boundaries. Historians, Political Scientists, and the Study of International Relations / Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman, eds. Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1991.
Bailes, Kendall E. Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin. Origins of the Soviet Technical Intelligentsia, 19171941. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.
Arkhipova T. G., Rumiantseva M. F., Senin A. S. Istoriia gosudarstvennoi sluzhby v Rossii. XVIIIXX veka. Moscow: Russian State Humanities University, 2001.
Alchon, Guy. The Invisible Hand of Planning: Capitalism, Social Science and the State in the 1920s. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985.
Graziosi, Andrea. Building the First System of State Industry in History. Piatakov's VSNKh and the Crisis of the NEP, 19231926 // Cahiers du Monde Rousse et Sovietique. 1991. 22, 4 (OctoberDecember). P. 539580.
Grinevetskii V. I. Poslevoennye perspektivy Russkoi promyshlenosti. Second edition, Moscow: Press of the All-Russian Central Union of Consumer Societies, 1922. (The first edition: Kharkov, 1919).
Guroff, Gregory. State and Industrialization in Russian Economic Thought, 19091914. Princeton: Doctoral Dissertation, Princeton University (1970).
Husband, William Benjamin. The Nationalization of the Textile Industry of Soviet Russia, 19171920. Princeton University, PhD dissertation, 1984.
Jasny, Naum. Soviet Economists of the Twenties. Names to be Remembered. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
K istorii plana elektrifikatsii Sovetskoi Strany. Sbornik dokumentov i materialov, 19181920 gg. / Ed. I. A. Gladkov. Reprint of the 1923 publication. Moscow: State Press for Political Literature, 1952.
Kafengauz L. B. Sindikaty v Rossii // Evoliutsiia promyshlennogo proizvodstva Rossii (posledniaia tret' XIX v. 30-e gody XX v.). Ed. L. B. Kafengauz. Moscow, 1994.
Kaufman A. The History and Development of the Official Russian Statistics // The History of Statistics. Their Development and Progress in Many Countries / John Koren, ed. New York: Franklin, (1918; reprint, 1970). P. 469534.
Kenez, Peter. The Birth of the Propaganda State. Soviet Method of Mass mobilization, 19171929. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Kotkin, Stephen. 1991 and the Russian Revolution: Sources, Conceptual Categories, Analytic Frameworks // Journal of Modern History. V. 70 (June 1998). P. 384425.
Laverychev V. Ia. Gosudarstvo i monopolii v dorevoliutsionnoi Rossii. Moscow: Mysl', 1982.
Laverychev V. Ia. Zarozhdenie gosudarstvenno-monopolisticheskikh tendentsii v rossiskoi ekonomike kontsa XIX v. // Istoricheskie zapiski Akademii Nauk SSSR. V. 109. Moscow, 1983.
Lenin V. I. Our Foreign and Domestic Position and Party Tasks (November 21, 1920) // Collected Works. 4th English Edition. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965. V.
Lenin V. I. The Impending Catastrophe and How to Combat It // Lenin's Economic Writings / Meghnad Desai ed. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989.
Leontief, Wassily. The Decline and Rise of Soviet Economic Science // Foreign Affairs. 1960. V. 38. No. 2 (January). P. 261272.
Leontief, Wassily. The Balance of the Economy of the USSR. (A Methodological Analysis of the Work of the Central Statistical Administration) // Essays in Economics. Theories, Facts and Policies. New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1977. V. 2.
Lewin, Moshe. N. I. Boukharine: Ses idees sur la planification economique et leur actualite // Cahiers du Monde Russe et Sovietique. 1972. 13, 4. P. 481501.
Lewin, Moshe. Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates. From Bukharin to the Modern Reformers. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974.
Lih L. T. Bread and Authority in Russia, 19141921. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
Littlejohn, Gary. The Agrarian Marxist Research in its Political Context: State Policy and the Development of the Soviet Rural Class Structure in the 1920s // Journal of Peasant Studies. 1984. No 11, 1. P. 6184.
Malle S. The Economic Organization of War Communism, 19181921. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Materials for a Balance of the Soviet National Economy, 19281930 / S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, eds. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Mespoulet, Martine. Statistique et revolution en Russie. Un compromis impossible (18801950). Rennes: Presses Universitaire de Rennes, 2001.
Miliutin, Vladimir P. The Economic Organisation of Soviet Russia: a Brief Sketch of the Organisation and the Present Situation of Industry in Russia. London: Communist Party of Great Britain, 1920.
Morozov L. F., Portnov V. P. Nachal'nyi etap v osushchestvlenii Leninskikh idei o gosudarstvennom kontrole // Voprosy Istorii KPSS. 1979. N 11. P. 3344;
O nekotorykh merakh k obezpecheniiu toplivom uchrezhdenii armii i flota i putei soobshcheniia a ravno chastnykh predpriiatii, rabotaiushchikh dlia tselei gosudarstvennoi oborony // Sobranie uzakonenii. St. 865 (31 March, 1915); O rasprostranenii polnomochii, prisvoennykh Ministru Putei Soobshcheniia Imennym Vysochaishim Ukazom 4ogo Marta 1915 goda, na dela po obezpecheniiu toplivom gosudarstvennykh i obshchestvennykh uchrezhdenii // Sobraniie uzakonenii. St. 1091 (2 May, 1915); O predostavlenii Ministru Torgovli i Promyshlennosti osobykh polnomochii po obshchemy rukovodstvu prodovol'stvennym delom v Imperii // Sobrannie uzakonenii. St. 1169 (19 May, 1915); Ob utverzhdenii pravil o poriadke i usloviiakh raspredeleniia tverdago mineral'nago topliva mezhdu potrebiteliami // Sobraniie uzakonenii. St. 1215 (29 May, 1915); Ob utverzhdenii polozheniia ob osobom soveshchanii dlia ob'edineniia meropriatii po obezpecheniiu deistvuiushchei armii predmetami boevogo i material'nago snabzheniia // Sobraniie uzakonenii. St. 1280 (7 June, 1915).
O roli pravitel'stva i chastnoi initsiativy v dele ustroistva, oborudovaniia i eksploatatsii nashikh torgovykh portov. I. Doklad Inzhenera V. E. Timonova and II. Doklad Inzhenera N. I. Vosnesenskogo // Izvestiia Sobraniia Inzhenerov Putei Soobshcheniia. 1892. No. 1 (January). P. 1324.
People's Commissariat for Posts and Telegraphs, Perepis' rabotnikov sviazi, 27 inavaria 1927 goda. Moscow: Press of the Peoples Commissariat for Posts and Telegraphs, 1929.
Porter, Bruce D. War and the Rise of the State. The Military Foundations of Modern Politics. New York: Free Press, 1994.
Preobrazhenskii E. A. Novaia ekonomika. Opyt teoreticheskogo analiza sovetskogo khoziaistva. Moscow: Press of the Communist Academy, 1926.
Preobrazhenskii E. A. The Crisis of Soviet Industrialization. Selected Essays. Ed. with an Introduction by Donald A. Filtzer. White Plains, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1979.
Remington, Thomas F. Building Socialism in Bolshevik Russia. Ideology and Industrial Organization, 19171921. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984.
Rigby T. H. Lenin's Government: Sovnarkom 19171922. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
Rosenberg W. G. Social Mediation and State Construction(s) in Revolutionary Russia // Social History. V. 19. No 2 (May, 1994).
Rowney D. K. Narrating the Russian Revolution: Institutionalism and Continuity across Regime Change // Comparative Study of Society and History. V. 47. January 2005. P. 79105.
Rowney D. K. The Scope, Authority, and Personnel of the New Industrial Commissariats, 19281936 // Social Dimensions of Soviet Industrialization / W. G. Rosenberg, L. Siegelbaum (eds.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. P. 124145.
Rowney D. K. Transition to Technocracy. The Structural Origins of the Soviet Administrative State. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989.
Siegelbaum L. H. The Politics of Industrial Mobilization in Russia, 19141917: a Study of the War-Industry Committees. New York: St. Martin's, 1983.
Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions. A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
Smolinski, Leon. Grinevetskii and Soviet Industrialisation // Survey. 1968. No 67.
Stanziani, Alessandro Statisticiens, zemstva et etat dans la Russie des annees 1880 //Cahiers du Monde Russe et Sovietique. 1991. 32, 4. P. 445467.
Sultanov F. Ob ustroistve podezdnyikh putei i portov v oblastiiakh, primykaiushchikh s iuzhnoi chasti Kaspiiskago moriia // Izvestiia Sobraniia Inzhenerov Putei Soobshcheniia. 1900. No. 7. P. 129136.
Trotsky L. My Life. An Attempt at an Autobiography. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1960.
Trotsky L. Towards Socialism or Capitalism? / Trans. R. S. Townsend and Z. Vengerova. London: Methuen, 1926.
Vasiaev V. I. et al. Dannye perepisi sluzhashchikh 1922 g. Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1962.
Vincenti, Walter. What Engineers Know and How They Know It. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991
Zaionchkovskii P. A. Samoderzhavie i russkaia armiia na rubezhe XIXXX stoletii. Moscow: Mysl', 1973.
Zvezdin Z. K. Ot plana GOELRO k planu pervoi piatiletki. Moscow: Nauka, 1979.
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