Abstract: What is the difference between human and animal: This is an eternal question for both psychologists and philosophers. Representatives of sociobiology such as M. Midgley, for instance, assume that human does not only resemble an animal. He is, in fact, an animal. Midgley criticizes Freud for not discussing that topic in his researches. However, the founder of classical psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud made many discoveries while viewing human as an animal. Other branches of psychoanalysis, especially structural psychoanalysis, on the contrary, searched for the signs of human nature in human sociality and ability to speak and use symbols. The author of the present article makes an attempt to view this problem from the point of view of morals. In this case, the research methods are closely connected with the methods of philosophical understanding of human. General methodological base of the research includes dialectics enriched with modern achievements in the sphere of system approach and synergetic vision of the world. The author shows that discussion of this topic raises may other moral issues. The novelty of the research is in the author’s attempt to find the difference between an animal and human not only from the point of view of their life style but also in moral attitude to the reality. Comparing egoism and altruism, the author shows that animals cannot be viewed as ‘moral’ subjects. Pavel Gurevich also specifies the difference between philosophical and biological interpretations of human nature.

Keywords: psychology, animal, human, behaviorism, egoism, altruism, human nature, rationality, emotivism, identity.

Abstract: One’s attitude to material items (for example, goods) is understudied yet very important aspect of psychology. The authors of the present article describe such relations from the point of view of consumer psychology. Based on the results obtained during a focused group interview and questionnaire survey, the authors view differences in attitudes to goods demonstrated by a consumer-subject and consumer-object. Consume subjectivity is described as an integral characteristic of conscious and unconscious behavior of an individual (individual element), awareness about the physical and marketing features of goods (information element) allowing to buy or use goods or services objectively needed by an individual. Consumer objectivity is described as an integral characteristic of conscious and unconscious behavior of an individual with a low level of awareness, reflection or critical understanding, reactive and automatic actions ensuring one’s sensitivity to the marketing influence such as advertising, fashion, placement of goods in shop windows, sales, and etc. According to the author, the level of consumer subjectivity/objectivity is expressed differently with reference to and in relation to different product categories and defined, in the first place, by the emotional and intellectual importance of a particular product, awareness of special features of this particular product category and one’s experience in using it. The subject-object attitude is presented as one’s attitude to an product when a person has much information about the item and its features, the item is moderately important for the person and the person is ready to use it often. The object-subject relation is presented as one’s attitude to a product when a person believes in the advertising or marketing message while he is not really interested in its attributes or when he is into marketing actions such as sales, games, contests, lotteries and etc. and does not plan to use the product often.

Keywords: economic psychology, consumption psychology, consumer behavior, purchase behavior, self-concept of a consumer, consumer subjectivity, consumer objectivity, consumer relations, subject-object relations, object-subject relations.

Abstract: The article is devoted to one of the most important problems of Sigmund Freud’s research – psychoanalytical theory of culture. The author of the present article reconstructs the main basic provisions of Freud’s theory and analyzes the relation between psychoanalysis and culture, definition of culture and grounds of culture and, finally, the origin of culture. Sigmund Freud believed that only by appealing to our sources we can actually understand the unconsciousness of culture. In his research the author has used research methods of psychoanalysis, cultural research, philosophy, studies of religion and history. All that created the historical-philosophical and psychoanalytical-cultural methodology. Peculiarities of the material studied has also made the author to apply phenomenological, hermeneutic and comparative approaches to understanding these phenomena. The scientific novelty of the article is in the author’s reconstruction of the basic provisions of Freud’s psychoanalysis of culture. Despite all the importance and significance of this problem, Freud did not leave us a well established theory of culture. He did not write a particular research work which would be devoted to psychoanalysis of culture and include all his provisions and evaluations on the matter. Therefore, Freud’s psychoanalytical concept of culture can be presented only in a form of reconstruction. This is the purpose of the present article.

Keywords: psychoanalysis and culture, hostility of culture, grounds of culture, primitive family, ‘great revolution’, ‘primary guilt’, totemism, taboo, conscience, ‘the first phase’ of culture.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the problem of describing the dynamics of mental states. The purpose of the article is to withdraw from the idea of viewing mental states as a fragmentary sequence. The author offers the idea of procedural analysis of mental states. For this purpose, the author tries to view the phenomenon of human being in a certain mental state as a continuous process. The author also analyzes the opportunity to attract models from special sciences as well as new parameters for describing mental states in time continuum. The phenomena being analyzed include genius and insanity, both of these states are viewed as ‘borderline’. The main research method used in this article is a psychological modeling, i.e. using the orthogonal system for defining mental states through special parameters. As a result of his research, the author offers new terms ‘mental intention’ and ‘mental time’. Mental time is viewed as a chain of both completed potential transformations of mental life and consists of mental future and mental past. These terms are used in the orthogonal system of definition when the axes are ‘mental time’ and ‘biological time’. The fluctuations of mental intention in the system describe human mental states.

Keywords: mental state, mental past, biological time, genius, pathology, fluctuation, mental intention, mental resource, procedurality, mental future.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the analysis of the masochistic personality in research of Karen Horney. Analyzing Karen Horney’s theory, the author of the present article distinguishes between definitions of masochism in classical psychoanalysis and Neo-Freudianism. Sigmund Freud related the genesis of that psychological structure with the mystery of child’s psychosexual development. However, he did not limit masochism to sexual behavior as Karen Horney believed. Unlike Freud, Horney viewed masochism as a social phenomenon. She believed that masochism had roots in the personality conflict. In the course of their life people demonstrate different patterns of behavior – adjustment to the reality or escape from the reality, strengthening of a personality core or elimination of individuality. Karen Horney believed escapism to be the main feature of masochism. This approach allows to solve the main paradox of the masochistic personality, i.e. combination of suffering and enjoyment. The author of the article has used psychological methods for analyzing stereotypes and mechanisms. The author has also applied research methods of philosophical anthropology. In general, the author is based on methods of Neo-Freudianism and takes into account achievement of social psychology. The novelty of the article is in the author’s attempt to provide a comprehensive description of Karen Horney’s concept of masochism. For the first time in Russian philosophical and psychological literature the author provides a full description of her views. Comparing Freudian and Neo-Freudian interpretations of masochism, the author also pays attention to errors made by Karen Horney when analyzing that phenomenon.

Keywords: psychology, neurosis, masochism, masochistic personality, personality, individuality, sexuality, ambivalence of feelings, suffering, enjoyment.

Abstract: The article is based on documentary materials and scientific texts and describes the love relations between Sabina Spielrein and Carl Gustav Jung. Their love lasted for several decades, had a certain influence on their theories and resulted in discovered made by them both individually and together. Sabina Spielrein was one of the distinguished representatives of psychoanalytical theory. Her scientific work still needs to be studied. Her difficult life circumstances did not allow her to become famous. The authors of the present article are trying to repair the injustice. The main research method used by the author is historicism. The authors analyze the bases of psychoanalytical theory researched by Sabina Spielrein and describe her contribution to the development of psychoanalysis. The authors have also used philosophical and anthropological approaches allowing to reveal specific features of human nature. The novelty of the article is in the authors’ attempt to analyze Sabina Spielrein’s achievements and prove her leading role in creation of the basic ideas of psychoanalysis. In particular, Sigmund Freud himself recognized her contribution to the development of the concept of Thanatos. In addition, the authors of the article describe the kind of love experienced by Spielrein and Jung and reflected in their research work.

Keywords: psychoanalysis, love, death, hysterical character, Spielrein, Eros, Thanatos, projection, symbols, identity.

Abstract: The article focuses on the problems of personal professional identification. The author of the article offers a general definition of ‘personal professional identification’ as an optimal structure (list) of personal professional qualities that allow an individual to be efficient in his work, i.e. to answer the main functional requirements of his profession. The author also analyzes closely associated terms such as ‘personal reliability’, ‘professional reliability’, ‘professional aptitude of an individual’ and ‘personal professional peculiarities’. The author also provides empiric data of personal professional identification in civil service. Theoretical concepts have been proved by the empiric data obtained though comparative analysis of personal professional qualities of workers of different majors. The analysis also involved statistical procedures of correlation analysis and methods of statistical inference. Psychological indicators were obtained by the means of objective, subjective and projective test methods. ‘Personal professional identification’ is a new term introduced into the sphere of psychological research as a structure of signs of a professional psychological phenomenon allowing to distinguish different types of personality versus professions. The concept of personal professional identification also involves the creation of professional psychological models within the framework of practical assessment of human resources for the purpose of career guidance, recruitment and support of workers in the process of their career and personal professional development.

Keywords: personal professional identification, personal reliability, professional reliability, professional aptitude, personal professional peculiarities, structure of professionally important qualities, dynamics of personal professional identification, model of a worker, professional psychological model, regression of personal qualities.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the functional and categorical types of generalization which reflect adequate variants of cognitive operations and relate to different levels of activity: 1) generalization of a great number of items that have very different sensitive features but that are usually used to satisfy universal social needs – ‘functional generalization’; and 2) generalization of a number of items that are usually used to achieve universal social goals – categorical generalization. The research is based on the Russian activity approach to studying the superior mental functions as well as discoveries of foreign authors who viewed the process of categorization and semantic processing of knowledge through studying peculiarities of the storage, processing and extraction from the long-term memory and through studying mental vocabulary. The authors assume that functional and categorical generalizations are actualized progressively along with the increasing general cognitive and emotional deficit demonstrated by a person with schizophrenia. According to the authors, oversensitivity to functional generalizations accompanied with their simultaneous distortion and decrease of categorical generalizations is more typical for the psychopathological schizophrenia defect; increase in categorical solutions when performing mental operations is more typical for pseudo-organic type of schizophrenia defect.

Keywords: schizophrenia, type of defect, thought disorder, activity, semantic organization of knowledge, social memory, generalization, cogitation, functional generalization, categorical generalization.

Abstract: The author of the article touches upon the issues related to internal fears of young boys and girls during the two age periods: senior school students or ‘early youth’ and ‘late youth’. The author offers a definition of ‘fear’ and describes s a classification of fears given by Yu. Shcherbatykh. The author also views the hypothesis about the possible relation between internal fears and life-purpose orientations of young boys and girls at different stages of their age development. The subject under research is the fear experienced by youth boys and girls of different ages depending on their life-purpose orientation. The author describes the tests she uses in her research. These are: 1) the ‘Questionnaire of the Hierarchic Structure of Current Fears’ offered by Yu. Shcherbatykh and E. Ivleva. The questionnaire allows to define the intensity of different type of fears and the presence of phobias in general. 2) the Test of Life-Purpose Orientations offered by D. Leontiev allowing to analyze life-purpose orientations and values of young boys and girls of the senior school age and late youth. The empiric results obtained by using the Questionnaire were correlated in each group (3 groups of school students and 3 groups of students with different intensity of fear: high level of fear, middle level of fear and low level of fear) with the results of the Test using the Pearson criterion. Based on the research, the author has made particular conclusions proving the research hypothesis and allowing to speak of the dynamics of lifepurpose orientations depending on the intensity of personal fears.

Keywords: mental health, difficulties, demands, youth age, teenager age, personality, life-purpose orientations, expression of fear, fear, self-fulfillment.

Abstract: Salman Akhtar is a famous American psychoanalyst and winter of numerous awards. He bases his book ‘Matters of Life and Death’ on Sigmund Freud’s teaching about the ‘two instincts’ and completes Freud’s teaching with later researches of Melanie Klein, Donald Winnicott, Eric Erikson, Wilfred Bion and others. Human life is viewed by the author from the point of view of the two components thereto – life and death – in their opposition and continuity. The first part is devoted to studying the main terms related to life: kindness, happiness and play. Different definitions of these terms are provided. Summarizing different scientific concepts of happiness, the author divides the following four categories of happiness: enjoyment, joy, ecstasy and satisfaction. Salman Akhtar traces back their ontological roots, metapsychological correlates and elements related to personal experience. The second part of the book is devoted to death. Salman Akhtar provides the two points of view on the matter – acceptance and denial of death – and their structural and existential functions. For this purpose, he also touches upon the problems of mortality, grave and orphans. Salman Akhtar studies the psychological meaning of graves as places where a deceased person is having his final sleep as well as expression of ethnic and religious hatred through desecration of graves and destruction of grave yards. He pays special attention to the problem of orphanage as a trauma experienced by a child and which consequences will remain for the rest of his life. The second part of the book views death and life as a continuous unity. Overcoming the barrier between life and death and traveling along the mental landscape of generation, we are leaving our bodies behind and returning to life as a metaphor full of play and generosity.

Keywords: Freudianism, death instinct, happiness, life instinct, happiness of peace, play, graves, orphanages, reincarnation, immortality.