"Flowers" and "sea": Dutch flower still life of the first half of the 17th century in Middelburg

Antsiferova Polina Konstantinovna ORCID: 0009-0004-2025-4937 Postgraduate student of the Department of Art History, European University in St. Petersburg (ANOOVO "EUSPb") 191187, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Gagarinskaya str., 6,, room. 1H, 2H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H polina.ant@mail.ru Other publications by this author

Introduction

The focus of the researcher of the phenomenon of Dutch still life of the XVII century most often focuses on the work of artists of the most influential province of the country — Holland. Still lifes of this period were infinitely diverse and were created throughout the Republic of the United Provinces. It was not only Holland with its urbanized cities (Amsterdam, The Hague, Haarlem) that attracted artists in the seventeenth century. For a number of reasons, one or another city in the republic, developing along its trajectory, but within the framework of the general conjuncture, became the center of attraction for artists of certain directions. In a few decades, Haarlem turned into the capital of breakfast still lifes, and "luxurious still life" flourished in The Hague and Amsterdam during the second half of the XVII century. Special attention should be paid to the city, which in the literature about Dutch still life is often located on the periphery of the study, the capital of the province of Zeeland is the city of Middelburg.

In Middelburg in the XVII century, many artists worked in the genre of still life, at least 30 masters created works in different directions ^{[18, pp. 27-212]}. This abundance was explained by many factors to be considered in the article. It is important that it is in Middelburg that the key school of floral still life originates, namely the school of Ambrosius Boshart the Elder (1573-1621). Boshart and his circle became one of the founders of this trend. The floral still life of Middelburg and the peculiarities of the genre in the works of the masters of this city have been studied only in fragments. In Russian historiography, it is worth noting the book by Yu. A. Tarasov ^[3], in foreign — the monograph by P. Taylor ^[24], the doctoral dissertation by M. S. V. Pennisi ^[20] and the two-volume work by S. Segal and K. Allen ^[22].

Middelburg is the second city in the Northern Netherlands

Middelburg in the southwest of the Netherlands bordered the North Sea to the west and the Spanish Netherlands to the north. Jacob Katz in his poem calls it "wonderfully located, blessed on all sides" ^[8]. This neighborhood played a key role for its development — Middelburg became both a commercial and maritime center and a haven for Flemings who fled from the neighboring country. The city developed almost at lightning speed from 1576 to 1600. The unprecedented number of immigrants led to a population growth of 14,000 from 1576 to 1600. In 1600, the population was about 20 thousand, and in 1675 we see an increase of only 7 thousand people ^{[16, pp. 93-94]}. The strategically important location of the city was one of the reasons why the Zealand Chamber of the East India Company was formed in it. The leading provinces for the company were Holland and Zealand, and administrative buildings were located in other cities of the republic ^{[21, p. 479]}. The East India Company in the republic was represented by six chambers — in Amsterdam, in Zeeland (Middelburg), Delft, Rotterdam, Hoorn and Enkhausen, while the company's charter clearly spelled out the shares in trade for each chamber. For example, when trading with Asia, the shares were distributed as follows: 1/2, Zealand 1/4 and the remaining chambers 1/16 ^{[11, p. 92]}. We see that Middelburg, which generates a quarter of the profit from the entire company, is becoming, despite a certain distance from the capitals, one of the main cities of the country.

We imagine Middelburg as a port city, but this is not entirely true. The city was not located directly on the water – you had to walk at least seven kilometers to reach it. The built ships had to be dragged along a specially dug channel to launch them ^{[7, p. 55]}. Shipbuilding has become a source of new jobs for Middelburg and Vlissingen, another city in Zealand. The ships were being repaired, it was necessary to make sails, weave ropes, which also led to the emergence of a large number of jobs, and, as a result, the rapid development of the city. Already in the first quarter of the century, Middelburg as the economic and port center of the country became the second in the republic, which causes unprecedented pride among the inhabitants of New Zealand.

Middelburg was a truly wealthy city, where many items were sold and produced. There was a weaving factory, a carpet factory, a foundry, several glass workshops, including a large glassblowing factory. Sugar was produced in the city, coffee was ground, flour was ground ^{[17, p. 13]}. However, it is important to understand that the city was in such a successful position only until the middle of the seventeenth century: trade and industry in Zealand reached their peak of prosperity in the 1640s and already around 1650 the prosperous period in the history of Zealand ends ^{[17, p. 14]}.

However, the Middelburgers have been passionately in love with their city throughout the century. Proximity to the sea has become a fundamental reason for the development of the city and the arts in it. In 1623, a collection of poems by Middelburg poets and artists "The Zeeuwsche Nachtegaal", or "The Nightingales of Zealand", was published. Zealand is becoming a "nest of songbirds" where lyrical poetry flourishes. The authors often composed poems about their love for the sea and the sea. Adrian van de Venne writes: "... the sea ebbs and flows every day, every hour, every week. / The bottomless sea is full of wonders <...> / The salty sea can bring wealth / Gives pearls and precious stones of various kinds / Gives shells and corals of amazing beauty / The sea can make someone rich, and sometimes completely deprive them of power <...> / Therefore, I (with your permission) pay tribute to salty Zealand / And recognize its superiority over other places ..." ^{[26, p. 103]}. And we find a great many such works – about the love of water, for the province of Zealand and its cities.

The Flemings in Middelburg

Middelburg and the whole of Zealand were closely connected with the Southern Netherlands, as they directly bordered them. After 1585, a whole wave of immigrants from the south poured into Zealand. The population growth that we see from the end of the century to the 1600s. Middelburg owes much to the enormous influx of southern residents. These included poor Flemish and Brabant farmers, workers, as well as artisans, teachers, artists and wealthy merchants. The Flemings, as in other cities of the republic, became the reason for the development of the region. Since the city gradually developed, and since 1622, with the opening of the chamber of the East India Company in Middelburg, it was also in great need of labor, the development of the economy did not take long to wait. The inhabitants of the Spanish Netherlands, who fled from the devastated cities, acted as a support for the newfound prosperity of Zealand. The expansion of infrastructure, the construction of new houses and the creation of new businesses due to unexpected demographic growth leads to the urbanization of Middelburg on a par with Amsterdam. Among the immigrants, we also see very successful entrepreneurs — for example, the merchant Balthazar de Moucheron, who made two unsuccessful trips in search of the northeast route to China and moved from Antwerp to Middelburg, was responsible for creating a company in Middelburg specializing in Caribbean trade ^{[13, p. 24]}. Of course, the inhabitants of the south fled not only to Middelburg, but also to other cities in Zealand, for example, to Vlissingen, however, it was the provincial capital that was most influenced by their arrival.

The large number of Flemings in Zealand affected not only the economy, but also the arts. Close ties between Antwerp and Middelburg were established before 1585 — residents of Middelburg regularly bought paintings at the Antwerp art market ^{[15, pp. 35-36]}. It was probably much cheaper to buy them in nearby Antwerp than in Amsterdam. At the artistic level, new relations are being established between the two cities, and with the influx of immigrants come new views on art and culture. Educated Antwerp residents introduce Middelburg to the practice of collecting works of art and antiques, which was very popular in their homeland at the end of the century. However, if at the end of the century the inhabitants of Zealand still traveled to Antwerp and actively brought "Flemish" to their province, then in the next century, as in many other cities of the country, this practice gradually disappears. The market was overflowing with paintings from the Spanish Netherlands. Craftsmen from Antwerp, who were already familiar with the Middelburg art market, also actively came to the city. Their move was often a well-thought-out career move, rather than a risky escape, as in the case of artists who moved to Amsterdam ^{[15, pp. 35-36]}. Moreover, the exodus from Flanders and Brabant in the 1580s significantly expanded consumer demand for art in Middelburg and thus created new opportunities for artists to continue their careers ^{[15, p. 37]}.

In cities where there was a guild or brotherhood of St. Luke, merchants who wanted to sell paintings in the city had to be members of the local guild, and, as a result, be citizens of the city. We know about the exception to this rule in Middelburg – nonresident sellers were allowed to sell art objects if they lived in the city for two years in a row ^{[19, p. 247]}. This rule mainly applied to visiting residents of the Southern Netherlands. By 1611, the situation had become much more complicated: the art trade had taken such a turn that by that year sellers from other industries began to protest and demanded to allow the sale of works of art only at certain hours ^{[25, p. 83]}. This applied not only to visiting Flemish and Brabant merchants, but also to the residents of Middelburg itself. Such a careful policy was necessary for artists to protect their art, and for sellers from other industries to make sure that profits would continue to flow. The inhabitants of Middelburg were happy to enjoy the benefits that the arrival of the Flemings had given them, but they were wary of their influence in the art world. In Middelburg, the impact of the newcomers was obvious and went far beyond the limits of pictorial inspiration.

Floral still life and the context of its development in the capital of Zealand

The development of floral still life is associated with several phenomena on the territory of the country – the appearance of a large number of gardens in the republic and the craving for collecting, especially objects of natural scientific interest. The new fashion for gardening quickly spread among the highest circles of European society. Around 1600, there were various types of gardens – medical (botanical), gardens with flower beds, orchards, etc. ^{[20, p. 171]} At the same time, gardening and fascination with flowers were not necessarily the occupations of the elite – gardens appeared everywhere in large cities of the republic and could be of an amateur nature. Interest in flowers really increased, the inhabitants of the republic got acquainted with a great variety of plants: tulips, hyacinths, buttercups, anemones were common. Due to their widespread popularity, it is easy to assume that they grew up directly in the country. However, this statement is not true. Many flowers were imported to Western Europe in the second half of the sixteenth century ^{[24, p. 9]}. The availability of imported ornamental plants not so long ago contributed to an increase in the number of so-called "pleasure gardens" throughout the country. Such a rich variety made it possible to study and observe plants, to escape from metropolitan life to this inspiring intellectual refuge. In some cases, private gardens, both in and outside the city, served to showcase the collections of their owners. Such collections included exotic flowers, cabinets with naturalia, etc.

Nature has become for the masters of still life not just a standard of beauty, but a commodity. This is especially noticeable in Middelburg, where trade and gardening go hand in hand. Due to the growing popularity of flowers, the Dutch, as international trade flourished in the seventeenth century, moved towards the commercialization of what had not previously been considered a commodity. Flowers were not only God's creation worthy of admiration, they turned into an object of scientific and aesthetic interest. The townspeople sent each other natural samples from different countries, including flower seeds, in letters. Then they were catalogued and widely distributed so that they could later be purchased ^{[14, p. 230]}. Behind the commercialization of natural resources that go beyond the usual for contemporaries, Calvinism with its natural cult was partly behind it, however, it was trade and economic prosperity that introduced all kinds of exotic products of nature into wide circulation, which provided the material base of a high level of culture.

Middelburg has become an ideal place for the development of floral still life. By the end of the 16th century, the city had many private gardens, including the private garden of the Treasurer General of the Province of Zealand. The citizens of Middelburg also had an active correspondence with Professor Carolus Clusius, an employee of the Botanical Garden in Leiden ^{[23, p. 62]}. Many authors of books about exotic plants and medicinal herbs lived in the city, who also interacted with flower lovers (nid. liefhebbers) from other cities ^{[12, p. 75]}. Thanks to the ever-increasing investments that enriched the city and the growing interest in flowers and natural sciences, Middelburg became one of the key centers of horticulture and floriculture.

Collecting and floral still life

Due to the prosperity of natural sciences in the country, natural specimens that were previously of no interest to the public have entered the market as collectibles. The rarity of these curiosities was especially appreciated, so naturalia objects that were not often found in nature were sold for a very high price. The desire to possess, collect and collect has become an integral part of an ineradicable curiosity and interest in nature. The collectible objects were directly part of nature, something exquisite and noble. Collecting the collection required a lot of effort. Returning to the economic issue, this view of things was a logical continuation of the mercantilist culture in the republic: if everything around suddenly turned into a commodity, more and more new objects began to arrive in the country, then turning these objects into collections was the right step from the point of view of capital accumulation.

In Europe, there is also a practice of cabinets with curiosities — Kunstkammer and Wunderkammer. Such cabinets could contain only works of art or collections of some natural materials, precious stones or metals. Cabinets were especially popular, containing all possible collections, which represented a small microcosm reflecting the interests of the owner. A special role is played by confidence in the creative power of the artist, who in his art can turn only to nature and copy it, but also display all the diversity of the macrocosm in the microcosm ^{[1, p. 10]}. Such a small universe could be considered as a miniature version of the real world, but Europeans had no particular passion for collecting ordinary objects. As already mentioned, it was rarities, curiosities, exoticism, or something so amazing in quality that it was transferred to the field of the exotic. By the middle of the sixteenth century, the production of cabinets for books, rarities, and technical inventions was widespread, so that the passionate collector would have a place to exhibit his rich collections. Collecting at the beginning of the seventeenth century became a truly fashionable activity. The presence of a collection was often seen as the presence of taste in its owner. Since the middle of the XVI century, aristocrats, rich merchants, doctors and lawyers have already formed their own small personal museums.

One of the items that attracted the collector's attention were clam shells. The interest in shells did not arise in the XVII century, it goes back to the history of Ancient Greece and develops gradually ^{[2, pp. 106-107]}. However, it was at the beginning of the seventeenth century that this curiosity turned into a passionate interest, in particular, it finds its expression in the paintings of the Middelburg masters of floral still life. There were few enthusiasts who collected shells in the XVII century in Middelburg: Philibert van Borselen, whose 1611 poem entitled "The Beach" considers shells not as works of divine art, but as "living curiosities" ^{[4, pp. 78-79]}. At the beginning of his poem, van Borselen calls on artists to accept the challenge that all the variety of colors observed in nature throws at him. He urges you to admire the lily, hyacinth and violet. "But, ultimately, all this should be inferior to the beauty of the shells, since I have not yet seen a single tulip that could compare with them." Van Borselen writes that, studying shells, "you see how wild pools of water come to life, then at high tide, then at low tide" ^{[4, pp. 78-79]}.

Boshart and van der Ast – Middelburg Floral Still Life

Even before van Borselen's poem, the main masters of still life in Middelburg, Ambrosius Boshart and Balthazar van der Ast, who painted floral still lifes, accepted the "challenge". Of these two artists, it is Boshart who becomes the founder of the tradition, which is believed to have originated from the work of Jan Brueghel Velvety ^[5].

Ambrosius Boshart the Elder (1573-1621) was born in Antwerp, but in 1587 the Boshart family moved to Middelburg. The family forms an entire dynasty of artists – three sons Ambrosius Boshart Jr. (1609-1645), Abraham Boshart (1612-1643) and Johannes Boshart (1606-1628), who moved to Haarlem ^{[18, pp. 45-46]}, will follow in their father's footsteps and will create still lifes of different directions. After his marriage, his brother–in-law, the artist Balthazar van der Ast (1593-1657), who would travel with Boshart, and his brother Johannes (1573-1618) appeared in the circle of Ambrosius Boshart Sr. ^{[18, pp. 28-29]}, This group of artists significantly influenced the development of floral still life throughout the Republic of the United Provinces, not only in Middelburg and Zeeland. Boshart left Middelburg after 1614 and traveled a lot around the country – Amsterdam, Utrecht, The Hague – his tradition spread throughout the Northern Netherlands almost at lightning speed and influenced the work of artists in Holland, for example, the only master of floral still life in Haarlem, Hans Bollongir (1598/1602–1672/73).

Boshart comes to Middelburg from Antwerp, like many other residents of the south. The influence of the Flemish and Brabant masters on the work of Boshart is obvious — first of all, of course, Jan Brueghel the Velvet – in the construction of composition and color. Borrowing from Brueghel is a confirmed fact, it is known that Boshart copied some of his works and even made sketches of individual flowers ^{[9, p. 79]}. Once again, in Middelburg, there is a clash of still nascent southern and northern traditions, which was inevitable, but beneficial for both sides.

Ambrosius Boshart is considered one of the first masters in the republic who depicts a bouquet of flowers next to clam shells ^{[6, p. 83]}. We also know about other artists who included the image of shells in their still lifes, for example, Jacob de Heine, Joris Hufnagel (in engravings), Clara Peters, but it was in the hands of Ambrosius Boshart the Elder that the image of flowers and shells became so widespread and found further development in the works of other Middelburg and Dutch artists, already in the second half of the century. Boshart's early compositions are characterized by excessive decorativeness, the bouquet appears as a panel devoid of volume. The young Ambrosius Boshart arranges objects, not caring much about perspective, but drawing out every detail [Fig. 1].

Fig. 1. Boshart, Ambrosius. Floral still life with a vase by Wang Li. 1607-1609 Copper, oil. 68x50 cm. Thyssen–Bornemisza Museum, Madrid.

The composition of this early work is not devoid of harmony, and the color palette is not yet distinguished by the sophistication that we see in later works even after a few years. However, already here we see an image of a shell, conveniently located on a stone surface next to a vase. A shell with an intricate pattern created by nature, a natural ornament, is no less outlandish than the flowers depicted – it could well be mistaken for a petal that fell from a withering bud. Delicate flowers and a fancy shell create a feeling of harmonious compositional unity, in which, it would seem, one does not exist without the other.

In later works, the developing skill of Ambrosius Boshart becomes obvious – in the still life of the 1609-1610s. [Fig. 2] the artist gradually moves away from overloaded composition and excessive decorativeness.

Fig. 2. Boshart, Ambrosius. A vase with flowers. 1609-1610 . Copper, oil. 37x27 cm . Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

The flowers under the artist's hand begin to come to life – each of the delicate, almost ephemeral buds tells a personal story. The artist draws out each flower more clearly – there are fewer elements in the still life, but the composition looks more logical and harmonious. Here we see the shell again, which is also easy to mistake for a petal, it occupies no less important place than the depicted flowers, although it is not the main element of the work. The general atmosphere inherent in the painting is more calm, and the less pronounced play of light and shadow gives the composition a certain fragility and touchiness. An even later still life of 1612. [Fig. 3] already shows an unambiguous evolution in the artist's skill.

Fig. 3. Boshart, Ambrosius. Flowers in a glass vessel, a butterfly and a shell. 1612. Copper, oil. 26x18.1 cm. A private collection.

The composition does not become much more complicated, but it becomes more harmonious and balanced. Boshart chooses flowers that match the color scheme. Every detail, every nuance, the petal of each bud is carefully drawn, and the intricate twist of the shell impresses with the skill of detailing. The black-and-white modeling is already manifested more clearly here, the depth of the composition appears. We see similar works in Boshart's work after 1614, when he left Middelburg. It is noteworthy that the artist does not leave his favorite composition of a floral bouquet with a shell depicted next to it, and it will become the leitmotif of Boshart's work in subsequent years. Depicting shells in his small-format copper works, Boshart uses them as an addition to a floral still life. Gradually, they turn from an insignificant object into an important element of the composition, which gives the work additional expressiveness and ornamental sophistication.

However, the floral still life with the image of a shell receives a special development in the work of Boshart's brother-in-law, Blatasar van der Ast. An extraordinarily prolific artist, van der Ast began to include images of shells and other marine curiosities in his works as early as the 1620s. The artist creates not only floral still lifes – the master's work begins with "fruit still lifes", in which we see baskets with various fruits, sometimes with a vase of flowers next to or flowers right in the basket. Van der Ast is already beginning to include the image of shells in the composition of these horizontally oriented paintings – in a dated still life of 1620, the artist depicts three shells carelessly arranged around a large plate of fruit [Fig. 4].

Fig. 4. Ast, Balthazar van der. Fruit still life with flowers. 1620. Wood, oil. 47x60 cm. Mauritzhuis, The Hague.

The painting becomes almost an image of a panopticon, a collection of rarities and wonderful things that every interested collector would like to possess. Such still lifes are far from the Haarlem "breakfasts" or "monochrome banquets", they are much closer to "luxurious" still lifes (the young Jan Davids de Hem was a student of van der Ast) ^{[18, p. 105]}, as they plunge the viewer into the world of true curiosities, carefully displayed by a skilled artist. At the same time, there is no hidden allegorical subtext in such works, van der Ast draws directly from the world around him and depicts reality. His still lifes are filled not only with images of inanimate objects, but also, like Boshart's, insects and sometimes even small animals – he probably borrowed this motif from the Dutch artist from Utrecht, Rulant Saverey, with whom they were in the guild together. Also, you should not see the attributes of vanitas still life in these elements, since shells were, first of all, symbols of the sea and water ^{[22, p. 84]}.

Balthazar van der Ast's interest in seashells and other marine motifs is beyond doubt. Already in the 1630s, the artist moved away from floral and fruit compositions and began to create small still lifes on copper and large ones on wood with the image of shells [Fig. 5].

Fig. 5. Ast, Balthazar van der. Still life with shells and a caterpillar. The 1630s. Copper, oil. 10.5x17.3 cm. A private collection.

These were studies similar to Durer's. In such works, van der Ast does not bother to depict anything other than shells, they act as the central characters of his works. The artist achieves incredible skill in depicting shells — their bends and twists significantly complicate the composition. Shells cease to be just an ornament, they become the subject of main interest. The artist creates a complete composition, finished and elaborated. After 1630, the master's attention to the shells grew into the need to create separate sketches with their image. The number of paintings of shells created by van der Aste is large – at least a hundred. Since such works were probably in great demand among the public, the author decides to create drawings that could be painted much faster than paintings.

The figure of Balthazar van der Ast is no less important for the development of certain areas of still life in Middelburg than the figure of Ambrosius Boshart. Van der Ast goes beyond floral still life, complicates his compositions and by the 1630s finds his favorite subject for the image – the shells of marine mollusks. Such an interest in the depiction of shells is absolutely unprecedented, we do not see anything like it in other Dutch artists of the XVII century. The motif appears sporadically among the masters of the beginning of the century from other cities, but does not find its continuation. Images of shells are important for Middelburg artists not as an element that attracts a collector, but as a "living" proof of the virtuosity of nature in creating three-dimensional shapes and two-dimensional patterns. At the same time, we cannot be completely sure whether the artist completely copies the shell pattern or introduces some of his own details. By transferring the image of a shell into a picturesque space, the master seems to double their inherent mystery. The shell is not only a natural object of a bizarre shape with an amazing pattern, but also the home of a mollusk that could hide in its shelter. A shell is, first of all, a shape, then a pattern, and then a hidden depth that will never be revealed to either a naturalist researcher, an artist, or a viewer of a still life. The true pearl of the sea, the shell, in the picturesque field only grows more mysterious and continues to attract artists and the public.

Motifs of the sea appear in other masters of still life in Middelburg in the XVII century. Peter van de Venne completely copies Boshart's manner, depicting bouquets of flowers next to shells, and his pupil Christoffel van den Berge also adopts Boshart's tradition, creating almost identical works. In the 1640s, the artist Lawrence Cran included images of shells and oysters in his fruit compositions. At the same time, Peter van Overshee depicts seafood on set tables and hunting still lifes, and the artist Francois Rijkhals paints paintings depicting a barn overflowing with fish and a table littered with food and seafood. Clam shells, of course, appear in the laconic works of Adrian Corte at the end of the XVII century. We see such an interest in the water element in everything — in painting (including the landscape), in poetry and in the general public interest in the sea.

Researchers agree that the depiction of shells and other marine motifs in still lifes of different directions should be associated precisely with the two above—mentioned phenomena - the development of interest in colors and the craving for collecting ^{[5, p. 3]}. However, we see that shells only appeared in floral still lifes at the beginning of the XVII century. Balthazar van der Ast develops this theme and goes further, creating separate compositions with clam shells. The masters of still life in Middelburg continue to experiment with marine motifs and increasingly include images of shells and oysters in their works, directly influencing artists from other cities and provinces. Such a passion for marine subjects went beyond simple curiosity, passion for exotic curiosities and natural science interest. The passion for collecting, of course, took place – however, it reaches a larger scale in the province of Holland than in Zealand. We see that in Middelburg during the entire XVII century there is evidence of only one passionate lover of shells, Flibert van Borselen, and other collectors appear only in the next century — Willem Arnaut Kin van Sitters (1756-1794) and Paulus de Wind (1714-1771) ^[10].

Both artists throughout their work invariably turned to the image of shells, and Balthazar van der Ast even begins to create still lifes only with clam shells. The artists found in this marine motif something more than just an image of an exotic curiosity or a decorative element. Having lived in Middelburg for a long time, both masters were in constant contact with the sea, with the water element and its riches. The sincere attachment of the artists to their city is in tune with the sentiments of other Middelburgers of the beginning of the century, who are not shy about expressing their feelings in verse form. For the residents of the rapidly developing Middelburg, which in many ways was not inferior to Amsterdam, and was replenished with imported wealth every year, the sea was of great importance. It was the breadwinner of all of Zealand – the constantly arriving ships reminded of the gifts it brought to the city and the entire province. Efficient merchants, active figures of the East India Company and skillful Flemings also raised the city to a new level, feeding from the sea. The interest in the sea was in tune with the interest in flowers, which also reminded the residents of the city of the successes of their homeland. Based on these complex social and political vicissitudes, not only floral still life develops as a trend, but also its varieties appear, which throughout the century have attracted residents of a prosperous republic.