The place and role of Chinese themes in Russian literature of the XIX – early XX centuries

Shagbanova Khabiba Sadyrovna ORCID: 0000-0001-5549-4819 Doctor of Philology Assistant professor, Professor of the Department of General Humanitarian Disciplines, Law Institute (St. Petersburg) 199106, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Gavanskaya str., 6 khabiba_shagbanova@list.ru Other publications by this author

The period of the late XIX – early XX centuries became the heyday of Russian literature, and, as it is customary to call this stage in the development of the latter, its "silver age", a kind of continuation of the "golden age", correlated with the era of A.S. Pushkin's creativity. Not only in literature, but also in science and art of the era under study, new trends emerged, various trends and styles competed with each other.

On the one hand, the "teachers" and "mentors" of the creators of the XIX century were such major literary figures as the poet G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816) and the novelist N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), who demonstrated to a new generation of authors the level and scope of what was achieved ^{[4, p. 170]}. Their work traditionally emphasized the large-scale and significance of state events (in particular, the Napoleonic Wars), which predetermined the authors' increased attention to such topics as "God", "eternity and time", "the fate of the Russian Empire, etc."

At the same time, key events in the foreign policy and domestic political life of Russian society, which had a transformative impact on the consciousness of Russian people, led not only to a turn towards large-scale, philosophical topics and rhetorical issues, but also increased attention to private, subjective human experiences.

As a result, in the first third of the XIX century. Romanticism, with its characteristic attention to personality, occupied the dominant positions in art and literature. The specificity of this literary trend suggested a decrease in attention to the historical and cultural context within which the action developed, as well as the role of social and national ties of the individual. In turn, the feelings, passions, and emotional experiences of a person came to the fore. At the same time, the stylistic and lexical side of the image of the psychological depths of the inner world of the personality was optimized, and the forms of verse became more sophisticated. Russian Russian literature, taking into account the fact that the birth of Romanticism occurred at a turning point for Russia, the characteristic features of this trend in Russian literature were an emphasized interest in Russian history, the identity of the people, and the affirmation of the ideal of a free and strong-willed personality. Of course, Romanticism in Russian literature was the result of the manifestation of rebellious sentiments, the desire for transformations of the historical development of Russia.

Thus, the Russian literature of the period under study was characterized by deep contradictions that reflected the changes taking place in the life of the people of the Russian Empire at that time.

First of all, this was determined by the fact that the Russian state in the late XIX – early XX centuries was a rather specific entity: in its significant territory, covering both Europe and Asia, over a relatively long period of formation and development, geopolitical, economic and cultural goals were formed to a certain extent ^{[16, p. 3]}. At the same time, the Russian state sought to combine the multidirectional nature of its cultural development, determined by the diversity of nations, peoples and nationalities that make up its composition, and national identification, which is a transformed version of "Orthodoxy – Autocracy – Nationality" ^{[10, pp. 320-360]}.

Russian Russian Revolution Events that ended the 19th century, as well as problems and expectations specific to the early 20th century (in particular, the decadent mood of the Russian people in connection with the unsuccessful end of the Russo-Japanese war) They contributed to the emergence of ideas of "imperial" nostalgia, as well as fears for the future of the Russian state ^{[17, p. 452]}. Social reality was developing at a rapid pace, as a result of which, on the one hand, the expectation of catastrophic events was in the air, on the other – significant changes.

According to a significant part of the Russian intelligentsia, the Russia of the previous eras should have been replaced by a state of the future with qualitative differences. In turn, the opinion of each of the intellectuals about the "Russia of the Future" was specific, however, from the point of view of the progressive–minded class, it had to choose a new vector of development, which could not but affect Russian public thought, which finds its expression, including in Russian literature.

These transformations in the sphere of public opinion of the Russian intelligentsia within the framework of the studied period were determined, among other things, by the finding of the Russian Empire, in a kind of crossroads, in a state of choosing a vector for further development, which can be conditionally designated as the axis "West – Russia – East". As a result, for the progressive–minded part of the Russian people, it was of great importance to identify themselves with the further direction of the development of the state, which tended, on the one hand, to the Western, on the other - to the eastern model.

The current situation of internal choice and self-determination in the era under study determined the interest of Russian poets and prose writers in the culture of the East. He, in turn, transformed the Russian mentality to a certain extent, first of all, representatives of the intelligentsia. However, interest in the subject of the East cannot be identified on the basis of generalization and analysis of the work of poets and writers of the studied period as permanent, rather, it was a kind of hobby, which was characterized by a certain situationality and periodicity.

It should be noted that the first contact of Russian authors with the Eastern culture, traditions and customs of the Eastern peoples took place in the Ancient Russian state and was realized long before the period under study. However, for the most part, information about the East was in the nature of messages present on the pages of individual works.       In turn, as we approached the historical period under study, Russia's contacts with foreign countries expanded, and interaction with their representatives became more and more profound, which contributed to the growth of the desire to learn the culture of the "other".

The actual image of China within the framework of interest in it in the context of Eastern culture began to manifest itself in Russian literature in the XV century. The testimonies of travelers contributed to its formation. In particular, from the work of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin in 1472 – "Walking across three seas", we learn that "And from China to China it takes six months to go dry, and four days by sea" ^[19]. The work emphasizes that China was the center of production and trade of high-quality and affordable porcelain products. However, the XVI century was a time of still fragmentary evidence about China and a weak interest in a distant country in Russian literature.

A truly active understanding of Chinese subjects in Russian scientific and literary thought dates back to the XVII century, a time when the Russian public, whose consciousness sought to comprehend the troubles in the state and find the most rational way to organize and manage it, turned to the experience of more developed countries in this regard, which could serve as an example for Russia. One of these countries was China, whose government was a unique combination of political and cultural foundations and was based on the traditions of Confucianism. The organization of public life and, as a result, public administration was based on respect for elders in the broadest sense of the word (parents, leaders, the head of state, etc.). In this regard, the Chinese traditions of public organization were of particular value as an example of the most successful building of relations between the state and society.

In turn, through embassies and diplomatic missions sent from Russia to China, relations between the countries deepened even more, and since the 17th century they have become relatively regular, which could not but be reflected in Russian literature. It is from this time that the two-way process of constructing the image of the "other" begins in China and Russia. Territorial remoteness and socio-cultural differences fueled the interest of the bilateral interest of the states, which served as the beginning of the period of identification of their images on the pages of literary works.

The interest in Chinese subjects, manifested not only in literature, but also in Russian culture as a whole, became significantly more active in the XVIII century. This was largely due to the emergence of the Chinoiserie style in architecture, conventionally classified as oriental, which also spread to decorative and applied arts and fashion. Initially, this style penetrated into Western European art, however, during the period of Peter the Great's transformations it appeared in Russia. This circumstance was explained, in turn, by Peter the Great's desire to borrow advanced Western achievements, to join the experience of European states, in other words, to integrate Russian culture and the cultures of Western countries. According to K.F. Pchelintseva, in connection with the expansion of trade between Russia and China, more and more works of decorative and applied art used to decorate the interiors of palaces were brought to the Russian state from the eastern country ^{[15, p. 29]}. As a result, the "Chinese style" became an obligatory attribute of the decoration of palace and garden areas in St. Petersburg in the XVIII century.         

Russian Russian literature, however, at this stage, among the "Chinese" elements that are actively integrated into Russian culture, it should be noted not only the architectural style, but also the translations of individual monuments of Chinese literature and public thought, which had a certain influence on Russian literature. In the XVIII century. all the elements of "Chinese" were perceived as a kind of exotic, manifestations of the mysterious and alluring, far from the Russian people, East. On this occasion, Yu. Russian Russian society's fascination with Chinese culture in the XVIII century, especially during the reign of Empress Catherine the Great, contributed to the transformation of the image of China into a "fairy tale of the East", which, in turn, sharply contrasted with the reality in the Russian state ^{[20, pp. 227-228]}. As a result, in the consciousness of the Russian people, the image of a distant eastern country by the XVIII century acquired pronounced archetypal features peculiar to the Chinese myth.

It was during this period that Russian writers and publicists began to actively address the topic of China in their works, many of whom were the authors of both original and translated articles on "Chinese" topics. In particular, the representative of Russian drama A.P. Sumarokov translated from German the "Monologue from the Chinese tragedy called "Orphan". Such famous writers of the XVIII century as D.I. Fonvizin, who performed a culturally significant translation of the text "Da xue" ("The Great Doctrine"), as well as A.N. Radishchev, who compiled the "Letter on Chinese Bargaining" (1792) during the Siberian exile, addressed the topic of China in his work, which reflects the issues of trade cooperation between Russia and China. In turn, in one of the author's later works, The Historical Song, A.N. Radishchev also addresses the topic of China, namely, Confucian motifs ^{[20, p. 228]}. Finally, the "Chinese" theme is present in G.R. Derzhavin's poem "Ruins", where the author talks about the Chinese Theater and the Chinese Gazebo, which previously served as decoration for Tsarskoye Selo parks.

It is noteworthy that many creators of literary works of the XVIII – early XIX centuries have never personally visited China, however, their texts also reflect "Chinese" motifs. This was a consequence of the acquaintance of Russian writers with travel books: travel notes, stories and diaries of eyewitnesses, on the basis of which it was possible to reconstruct the historical, everyday and cultural features of the places visited by the authors. As a result, on the basis of their, as well as other journalistic works, ethnic stereotypes that were associated with China begin to form in Russian literature. In particular, in the poem "The Message to the Chinese House" by one of the poets of the XVIII century – E.I. Kostrov, China is not mentioned as a state, but correlates with a work of architecture that was built in the "Chinese" style. In turn, the reader who has read this work should draw conclusions about the "Chinese" style based on the following descriptions presented in the poem: the house is surrounded by "shady trees", decorated with tables, paintings and carpets, and it is built of stone. In other words, the "Chinese" style, based on this work, is, first of all, harmony with nature, refined art combined with the strength of the materials chosen for construction, as well as with a love of decorative design of the space.

In the fable of the Russian poetess and translator A.P. Bunina, whose work currently continues to remain relatively little studied, with the subtitle "Allegory" and the title "Beijing Lists" (1810), as follows from the latter, the Chinese capital Beijing is mentioned.  In the work itself, we are talking about a kind of sports competition between "noble elders" – "the lists", in which, contrary to established tradition, a woman decided to participate. In the fable, in the most general terms, a very unattractive picture of the life and everyday life of Chinese women is recreated:

"... That the wives there are sitting at home in it,

And their roads are all locked up for running;      

What has been tender since childhood, will hardly be released into the world,

They twist them with ribbons and tighten their legs..." ^[2].

Thus, the work mentioned the Chinese custom of bandaging women's legs in order to give them more grace, common in China in the families of representatives of noble families. Meanwhile, in the text of the poem there are indications not only of the elements of Chinese life and everyday life, but also of the character traits that should be inherent in Chinese women, first of all, kindness and gentleness.

"... Be a good wife, without whims, guile;

By the meekness of the soul, give everyone a meek look;

About the needs of the subjects and their amusements;

Be a good daughter, sister,

Keep family peace,

And find glory in your gentle morals:

This is a vast field for us! ^[2].

Thus, in A.P. Bunina's poem, the world of a Chinese woman is depicted as subordinate to the male world, while the most characteristic features that determined the organization of her daily life and everyday life were caring for her children and close environment.

In turn, in the fable of another author of the beginning of the XIX century – A.D. Illichevsky "Tea and Sage" (1821), tea is mentioned as one of the products of Chinese production sent for export. In the fable, along with tea supplied from China to other countries, sage is also mentioned as a commodity, which, on the contrary, is sent to China, in which the author apparently sees signs of building successful foreign economic relations of the Chinese state.  Meanwhile, in the fable of A.D. Illichevsky it is also said that tea was sent to Europe "From Kyakhta by a large wagon train." Thus, the poem also contains references to the only point of Russian trade with China in the first half of the XIX century – Kyakhta, which played the role of a "window to China" ^{[6, p. 7]}.

The "Chinese" theme in the early 1830s was also reflected in the works of A.S. Pushkin. In relation to China, two epithets were used in his poetry, namely: "distant" ("Let's go, I'm ready...", 1830) and "motionless" ("Slanderers of Russia", 1831). At the same time, in the author's last poem, the characteristic "motionless" was applied to the Chinese state in a political sense I mean.

Finally, in some works relating to the first half of the 19th century, China is characterized as a kind of another world, through the prism of which the reader can assess social phenomena in the Russian state. In particular, examples include the unfinished utopia novel by V.F. Odoevsky "4338: Petersburg Letters" (1835) and "Comedy about Fedosya Sidorovna's War with the Chinese" by N.A. Polevoy (1842).

Thus, in the first half of the 19th century, interest in Chinese subjects was relatively stable. A.K. Tolstoy's poem "Sitting under a Canopy" (1869) was dedicated to her, in which the theme of the satirical "History of the Russian State from Gostomysl to Timashev" developed. As a result, the image of China, constructed in the work of A.K. Tolstoy, contained hints in the form of allegories of "disorder" in Russian public thought.

Russian Russian writers, in turn, in the era under study, in particular, during the reigns of Alexander III (1881-1894) and Nicholas II (1894-1917), the ideas about China reflected in the works of Russian writers changed as a result of the development of contacts in various fields between representatives of the Chinese and Russian people. During the Russo-Japanese conflict, thousands of residents of the Russian state for the first time, finding themselves in the Far East, came into close contact with a culture alien to them in practice, about which most of them had very disparate ideas.

Russian Russian-Japanese war, the image of a distant country was constructed not only on the pages of works of art, but also in newspapers, based on the testimonies of Russian soldiers. The latter, in turn, were very contradictory: from the recognition of the Chinese as kind and peaceful workers ^[14], respect for Chinese culture to the complete denial of all Chinese ^{[13, p. 1]}. Russian Russian and Chinese characters are closer than Japanese and Chinese, based on the testimony of one of the publicists, which was reflected in the mass media during the Russo-Japanese war... The Chinese will never join the Japanese precision, pedantry and exactingness to service and management. The Chinese will especially hate pervasive control everywhere" ^{[21, p. 1]}. Russian Russian soldiers' positive perception of the Chinese people can be concluded, for the most part, on the basis of these conclusions of the observer, however, it is not possible to make a comprehensive representation of Russians about China on the materials of the periodical press due to the heterogeneity of the evidence encountered.

In this regard, it is advisable to turn to the consideration of the image of this state on the basis of works of fiction, primarily the works of poets and prose writers of the "silver Age". On the one hand, the image of China constructed in these works may be overly romanticized, on the other hand, being representatives of the Russian intelligentsia, poets and writers of the "silver Age" formed their ideas about China on the basis of extensive scientific, primarily historical, literary and ethnographic material, translations of Chinese works were available to them authors. This, in turn, allowed them to construct a more complete picture of Chinese culture, customs and traditions, as well as the mentality of the Oriental people. Russian Russian poets and writers' ideas about China were certainly influenced to a certain extent at the beginning of the twentieth century by the testimonies of participants in the Russo-Japanese conflict of 1904-1905.

In turn, the fact that the Russian side lost the war with Japan could not but negatively affect public sentiment. In Russian society, a certain feeling arose not only of the "turn of the times", but also of a spiritual crisis. As a result, the transformation of the image of China in poetry and prose of the "silver" century is a natural result of the historical development of the Russian state, the foreign policy events of which could not but have an impact on the internal state of Russian society.

Before describing the image of China in the works of poets and prose writers of the "silver Age", it is initially necessary to elaborate on the definition of the very concept of the "silver age".

To date, most representatives of the scientific community believe that the phrase "silver age" itself has been established in relation to a certain period of the development of Russian literature due to the publication by N.A. Otsup of an article with the same name in the newspaper "Numbers" ^{[11, pp. 174-178]}. However, the question of the origin of this term in many ways continues to be the subject of scientific discourse. This is determined by the fact that initially the concept of the "silver Age" in Russian literature was used in relation to the work of poets of the middle and second half of the XIX century: A.A. Feta, F.I. Tyutchev, A.N. Maikov, etc. ^{[9, p. 476]}

Chronologically, V.S. Solovyov was the first to speak about the onset of the "silver Age", even before N.A. Otsup. He proposed to give a title to the collection of his articles on the works of A.A. Fet, A.K. Tolstoy, F.I. Tyutchev, J.P. Polonsky and K.K. Sluchevsky "The Silver Age of Russian Lyrics" ^{[18, p. 327]}, as he saw in these poets and writers the heirs of the great creators of the "golden Age" – A.S. Pushkin and M.Y. Lermontov.

Russian Russian poetry In fact, based on the opinion of V.S. Solovyov, it can be concluded that the beginning of the "Silver Age of Russian Lyrics" should be recognized in the 1870s. Meanwhile, in these years, the face of Russian literature was a novel, and not a poetic genre. The heyday of significant narrative works with a complex plot was associated with the names of such writers as L.N. Tolstoy, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky and some others.  In turn, the poets whom V.S. Solovyov pointed out in his work – A.A. Fet, F.I. Tyutchev, Y.P. Polonsky, etc., did not have such wide popularity among the readership at the time of its publication. She came to them much later, at the beginning of the twentieth century. thanks to the work of symbolists, who saw the authors listed by V.S. Solovyov as their mentors and teachers.

In turn, the use of the phrase "silver age" by N.A. Otsup in the framework of the article of the same name was the result of the author's lying through the process of changing the "golden age" to a new, "silver age" based on the materials of Russian poetic works from A.S. Pushkin to A.A. Blok. It is interesting that N.A. Otsup made an independent indication of his authorship of the concept under study, noting that "... the writer of these lines proposed this name to characterize modernist Russian literature" ^{[12, p. 127]}.

However, the term "silver age" has been filled with true meaning for a long time. It is worth noting that N.A. Berdyaev's article "The Russian Spiritual Renaissance of the early 20th Century and the Path magazine" also contributed to this process, the text of which discussed the importance of culture of this period. In particular, the author noted that the beginning of the twentieth century.  In Russia, it was marked by "... a renaissance of spiritual culture, a renaissance of philosophical and literary-aesthetic, an aggravation of religious and mystical sensitivity" ^{[1, p. 3]}. The author also pointed out that in the old days, Russian culture could not achieve such sophistication as at the specified time.

Russian Russian cultural transformations, identified by N.A. Berdyaev in his work, influenced the title of the book of memoirs by S.K. Makovsky "On the Parnassus of the "Silver Age", which combined ideas about the beginning of the twentieth century as a time of the rise of Russian spiritual culture, as well as the literature of this period. a period that is, in a way, the heir to classical works, the "golden age" of Russian literature. In the work of S.K. Makovsky, it is noted that the title of the book indicates the creators of the pre-revolutionary era, who, through poetic, prose, musical, artistic, as well as works of a different orientation, became the exponents of the cultural rise of the specified historical period of time ^{[7, p. 9]}.

Unlike N.A. Otsup, according to S.K. Makovsky, the concept of the "silver age" included not only poetic works, but also achievements in the field of theater and fine arts. In turn, the "silver Age", from the author's point of view, is not only the cultural trends that emerged in Russia before the revolutionary 1917, but also the culture of Russian emigration of the first wave. In turn, the exception to this rule, from the author's point of view, were representatives of Russian poetry and prose, to a certain extent associated with realism, in particular, A.P. Chekhov, V.G. Korolenko, M. Gorky.

Discussions about the inner meaning of the term "silver Age" continued in the research community throughout the twentieth century. However, all the authors who analyzed this concept were of the opinion that its core was Russian symbolism. In particular, a collection of memoirs about the "silver Age", prepared by V. Kreid, was devoted to symbolism ^[3]. In turn, S.K. Makovsky argued mainly about symbolist poets, as well as their followers, representatives of the Acmeist movement, in the already mentioned work "On the Parnassus of the Silver Age".

Today, there is no doubt that the work of the symbolist poets marked the heyday of Russian literature.  At the same time, along with symbolism, the main literary trends of the "silver age" were also acmeism and futurism. If the symbolists sought to express deep feelings and thoughts through symbols and metaphors, then for the Acmeists, the basis of creative self-expression was clarity and clarity of thought. The essence of the Futurists' work, in turn, consisted in progressive, innovative ideas through working with language and form, and various kinds of experiments with the latter.

Among the thematic diversity of the works of the "silver Age", the generalization and analysis of which can act as a separate topic for scientific research, the East (China) occupied a special place. According to L.A. Kolobaev's figurative expression, this time stage can be characterized as a period when "... the West remembered the East, and the East reached out to the West, when poets caught the need of mankind to imagine, survey, realize themselves as a whole" ^{[5, p. 63]}. It should be emphasized that the very specificity of the epoch determined the presence of Oriental themes in the poetry of the "silver Age".

At the turn of the XIX – XX centuries, the poets' interest in "other" cultures deepened significantly, they were attracted by a certain otherness inherent in both the Western and eastern world. In turn, interest in the subject of the East was characteristic of the works of K.D. Balmont, N.S. Gumilev, A.A. Akhmatova, V.V. Mayakovsky, M.A. Voloshin and some other poets. In addition, their works in the memoir or epistolary genre often contain examples of the interaction of Russian poets with Chinese or Japanese, names found in Chinese mythology, evidence of Chinese books on art and literature.

If we talk about the unifying principles of the poetic works of Russian symbolists with the image of a distant eastern country, it should be noted that they were fantastic, fictional motives and dreams. It should also be noted that at the beginning of the twentieth century, Russian society was engulfed by the ideas of "pan–Mongolism" - the movement for the integration of the Mongolian peoples within the framework of a unified state education of the Mongolian sphere. The theme of the so-called "yellow danger" was developed in the creative legacy of V.S. Solovyov, the ideas of which could be traced in his works written at the end of his life. Also, an echo of this topic is found in the creative legacy of A.A. Blok.

As another reason why representatives of Russian literature at the turn of the epochs turned to the culture of the East, it is necessary to highlight the desire for stability and, at the same time, detachment, withdrawal from reality into the world of dreams. This theme, in turn, was opposed in the works of the authors of the era under study to the revolutionary sentiments in the Russian Empire, which also take place in some European societies. From the point of view of O.E. Mandelstam, it was the XIX century that became "... the conductor of Buddhist influence in European culture" ^[8].

Despite the fact that the image of China in the Russian literature of the "silver Age" was the subject of research in a number of scientific papers, it should be noted that up to the present time, certain lacunae continue to persist within the framework of this topic, requiring further scientific understanding and analysis.

Most of the scientific works published to date on the study of the image of China in the works of Russian poets and writers of the "silver Age" are devoted either to the study of "Chinese" themes in the works of individual authors (I.A. Bunin, D.S. Merezhkovsky, M.A. Voloshin, etc.), or to a comprehensive coverage of the theme of China in the works of the period under study.

Relatively often, the subject of scientific research was the evolution of the perception of Oriental traditions in the works of Russian poets and writers of the "silver Age", as well as the connection of the image of a distant eastern country constructed in their works with its mythology, religion, and culture.

Russian Russian authors' scientific understanding of the image of China formed in the works of the historical period under study should certainly take into account the context of their creation: whether they were personally familiar with the culture of China, or learned about the peculiarities of the country from other sources, whether they were aware of translations of the works of Chinese authors into Russian, etc. Russian Russian literature of the "Silver Age" at the same time requires the cognizing subject to have knowledge in the field of each of the cultures – both Russian and Chinese. At the same time, the study of the image of China on the example of both poetic and prose works of Russian literature of the studied period seems to be the most complete.

In this regard, it is also of particular importance to identify the main aspects of creating the image of China in Russian works, as well as its sequence, as well as comparing this process using the example of several works reflecting the "Chinese theme".

Russian Russian literature Summing up the consideration of the place and role of Chinese themes in the Russian literature of the XIX – early XX centuries, it should be noted that its presence in the works of both poets and writers of the studied period, on the one hand, was determined by foreign policy events in the life of the Russian state, as a result of which there was a rapprochement of Russian and Chinese cultures, on the other The sides are the natural development of Russian literature. The latter, in turn, could not help but react to external changes, while gravitating towards the knowledge and understanding of the culture of the "other". It was the cultures of the East, in particular China, that were particularly attractive to Russian authors of the late XIX – early XX centuries. due to the desire to learn more about the traditions and customs of a distant country, the mentality of the people and to perceive the best features of the experience of its state and social structure.

It is in the works of poets and writers of the "silver Age" that the image of China acquires vivid outlines. Russian Russian literature should be based, on the one hand, on the study of individual works of authors devoted to "Chinese" subjects, or affecting it, and on the study of the specifics of the reflection of "Chinese" elements in the works of Russian writers, i.e. the Chinese text and the context of the works of Russian authors of the "silver Age".